Species in the Phyllophaga rugipennis group are reviewed, four new species from México, Costa Rica and Panamá are described, one specific name is synonymized, and one species is recorded for the first time from México. The group includes: P. rugipennis (Schauffus) and P. tenuipilis (Bates) from México and Guatemala; P. lissopyge (Bates) from Nicaragua to Panamá; P. hemilissa (Bates) and P. laeviscutata (Moser) from Costa Rica and Panamá; P. pachypyga (Burmeister) from Colombia and Venezuela; P. brevisetosa (Moser) and P. pruinipennis (Moser) from Colombia; P. densata (Moser) from southern México to Panamá; P. nevermanni Saylor, P. monteverdosa n.sp., P. chorotega n.sp., and P. cartaginesa n.sp. from Costa Rica; P. godmani (Bates), P. chinanteca Morón and Nogueira, P. enkerliniana Morón and Deloya, and P. candelaria n.sp. from México. Phyllophaga nigrofusca Moser is synonymized under P. pachypyga (Burmeister), and P.densata is recorded for the first time from México. A key is provided for males of the 17 species. Diagnostic structures, variation, and maps are included.

RESUMEN Se revisa el grupo de especies Phyllophaga rugipennis, se describen cuatro especies nuevas de México Costa Rica y Panamá, se sinonimiza un nombre específico y una especie se registra por primera ocasión para México. El grupo incluye: P. rugipennis (Schauffus) y P. tenuipilis (Bates) de México y Guatemala; P. lissopyge (Bates) de Nicaragua a Panamá; P. hemilissa (Bates), y P. laeviscutata (Moser) de Costa Rica y Panamá; P. pachypyga (Burmeister) de Colombia y Venezuela; P. brevisetosa (Moser), y P. pruinipennis (Moser) de Colombia; P. densata (Moser) de México a Panamá; P. nevermanni Saylor, P. monteverdosa n.sp., P. chorotega n.sp. y P. cartaginesa n.sp. de Costa Rica; P. godmani (Bates), P. chinanteca Morón y Nogueira, P. enkerliniana Morón y Deloya y P. candelaria n.sp. de México. Phyllophaga nigrofusca Moser se sinonimiza con P. pachypyga (Burmeister) y P. densata se registra por primera vez para México. Se presenta una clave para separar los machos de las 17 especies. Se incluyen ilustraciones de las estructuras diagnósticas, variación y mapas de distribución.

The preimaginal stages of 14 species of Chrysidini—three postdefecating larvae (prepupae), nine mature larvae, two second-stage larvae, and nine first-stage larvae—are described. After analyzing for 33 selected characters, the character states observed in the mature larvae studied, several apomorphies are described that could characterize the groups Bethylidae, Chrysididae, Chrysidinae, and Chrysidini, as well as the genera Caenochrysis, Chrysis, Exochrysis, and Trichrysis. Second-stage larvae are very similar to mature larvae, those of the Chrysidini and Elampini being differentiated by the number of mandibular teeth. First-stage larvae display several morphological particularities derived from their cleptoparasitoid or parasitoid nature, emphasis being placed on the long antennae, the degree of development of setae on the labrum, the ventral position of the maxillary and labial palpi, the strong development of the mandibles, and the morphology of the last abdominal segment. For first-stage larvae, after analyzing 20 selected characters, different apomorphies that could characterize the genera Caeonochrysis, Chrysura, Pseudospinolia, and Trichrysis are discussed.

Ganglionus, gen. nov., is described for five species: G. mitigatus, sp. nov., from Costa Rica; G. catenatus, sp. nov., from Costa Rica and Panama; G. undulatus, sp. nov., from Costa Rica and Panama; G. constrictus, sp. nov., from Ecuador; and G. spatulatus, sp. nov., from Colombia. Ganglionus is placed in Derelomini and presents the following putative synapomorphies: male with (1) dorsally tumescent rostrum, (2) posteriorly setose sternum VIII, and (3) apically O-shaped tegmen. Ganglionus is associated with Carludovica Ruíz & Pavón (Cyclanthaceae). Observations on the biology of G. undulatus at La Selva, Costa Rica, indicate that the adults are pollinators. The females oviposit into the staminate flowers of the host inflorescences, and the larvae complete their development in the leaf litter. A cladistic analysis—using Notolomus basalis LeConte, Staminodeus vectoris Franz, and Perelleschus carludovicae (Günther) as outgroups - proposes the relationships (G. mitigatus, ((G. catenatus, G. undulatus), (G. constrictus, G. spatulatus))).

Field investigations of the nest architecture of the Amazonian bumble bee, Bombus transversalis (Olivier), revealed the presence of a new species of parasitoid wasp belonging to the microgastrine braconid genus Apanteles Foerster, reared from case-bearing tineid moth caterpillars feeding within the nests. The only other two species of Apanteles Foerster known to attack moth larvae within bumble bee colonies in the New World are here reviewed and compared taxonomically and biologically. An illustrated key to the three species recognized in this paper [Apanteles galleriae Wilkinson, A. nephoptericis (Packard) and A. nidophilus Whitfield & Cameron, n. sp.] is presented, and the latter two species are fully described and illustrated for the first time.

Plesiochrysa is a widespread (Neotropical, Oriental, and Australasian) but poorly studied genus of green lacewings. Based on adult characters, the genus appears closely related to the Holarctic genus Chrysopa; however, until now data on larval characteristics have been unavailable. Here we describe the larval stages and biology of Plesiochrysa brasiliensis (Schneider), the most common Plesiochrysa species in the New World. The larvae have characteristics that are typical of “naked” (nontrash-carrying) chrysopid larvae: e.g., fusiform, relatively flat bodies, spherical thoracic and abdominal tubercles, and sparse setae; but the presence of some hooked setae is consistent with a low level of trash-carrying behavior. The larval coloration of P. brasiliensis exhibits a striking developmental polyphenism: second and early third instars are rosy to brownish; two-day-old third instars are an intense green and yellow; whereas three-day-old third instars have an orange-brown hue. The adults are predaceous. The above and other morphological and biological characteristics of P. brasiliensis confirm that Plesiochrysa is very closely related to, but distinct from Chrysopa.

RESUMO Plesiochrysa é μm gênero de crisopídeo de ampla distribuição (regiões Neotropical, Oriental e Australásia), porém muito pouco estudado. De acordo com características do estágio adulto, o gênero parecer ser proximamente relacionado ao gênero Holártico Chrysopa; entretanto, até o presente, informações sobre as características larvais eram desconhecidas. Neste trabalho, são descritos os ínstares larvais e a biologia de Plesiochrysa brasiliensis (Schneider), a espécie de Plesiochrysa mais comum no Continente Americano. As larvas têm características que são típicas de larvas de crisopídeos “nuas” (não carregadoras de lixo): por exemplo, corpo relativamente chato e fusiforme, tubérculos torácicos e abdominais esféricos e setas esparsas, mas a presença de algumas setas com ganchos sugerem μm hábito de carregar lixo em pequena escala. As larvas de P. brasiliensis apresentam μm polifenismo notável no seu desenvolvimento: durante o segundo e início do terceiro ínstar, a coloração das larvas varia do róseo ao castanho; já no segundo dia do terceiro ínstar, mudam para uma cor verde e amarela intensa, enquanto no terceiro e último dia do terceiro ínstar esta passa a ser marrom-alaranjada. Os adultos são predadores. Estas e outras características morfológicas e biológicas de P. brasiliensis confirmam que o gênero Plesiochrysa está proximamente relacionado a Chrysopa, sendo porém distinto deste.

A new genus and species of geniatine scarab is described from southeastern Brazil. The genus Xenogeniates is characterized by the unusual shape of the mesosternum, which is strongly invaginated and concave. Unusual characteristics of the taxon are discussed in relation to the Rutelinae and the Scarabaeidae.

RESUMEN Se describe un nuevo género y especie de escarabajo geniatine del sureste de Brazil. El género Xenogeniates se caracteriza por la forma inusual del mesosterno que es profundamente invaginada y concava. Características inusuales de este taxon se discuten en relación a Rutelinae y Scarabaeidae.

The leafhopper Carneocephala floridana Ball is a common inhabitant of the salt marshes of north Florida. Although C. floridana is not usually economically important, increased agriculture and residential development in coastal areas may result in this insect becoming a more common pest species. Carneocephala floridana, like other members of this genus, is a likely vector of Pierce’s disease of grapes. This study documents the yearly distribution of C. floridana among its most common native host plants. Although C. floridana was present during every month of the year, it reached its highest densities during the spring and summer months on mixed herbaceous plant communities. It also exhibited smaller population peaks on some monocultures of smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, during the winter months, but these increases were most likely the result of immigration. Adult leafhoppers migrate from mixed herbaceous plant communities during the winter months, when these plants experience a substantial dieback, to patches of S. alterniflora. Moreover, marked adult C. floridana showed a greater tendency to disperse from monocultures of S. alterniflora compared with mixed herbaceous communities during the spring. This is consistent with previous studies, which indicate that this leafhopper tends to feed and oviposit on herbaceous plant species during the spring and summer months, a period when these plants exhibit vigorous growth.

Wolbachia are a rickettsial type bacteria that have been implicated as a cause of reproductive disruption and alteration in many insect species. Polymerase chain reaction assays of the 16S rRNA gene were conducted to reveal the prevalence of Wolbachia in 14 Diabroticite species, 12 Diabrotica, and two Acalymma. Assays revealed the presence of Wolbachia infection in three Diabrotica species; D. virgifera virgifera LeConte (all 40 individuals), D. cristata (Harris) (three of 25 individuals), D. lemniscata LeConte (all 20 individuals), and the two Acalymma species, A. blandulum (LeConte) (all 20 individuals), A. vittatum (F.) (one of 20 individuals). The identity of the Wolbachia strain was determined by sequencing the 16S rRNA and ftsZ genes as well as a restriction enzyme digest of the ftsZ gene. Distances and neighbor-joining trees on the Kimura 2-parameter measure as well as BlastN searches in GenBank revealed that the strain of Wolbachia infecting D. lemniscata, D. v. virgifera, A. blandulum, and A. vittatum are most likely the same strain of Wolbachia within the division A group. The strain of Wolbachia infecting D. cristata also clusters within the A group, but it is different from that found in the other four Diabroticites. Implications of these infections are also discussed.

In southern Mexico, four native and one introduced species of Opiinae (Braconidae) attack larvae of Anastrepha spp. fruit flies. There is a substantial overlap in the hosts of the parasitoids, and every species has been collected from fruit flies attacked by at least one or two other species. The ovipositors of these braconids have a broad interspecific range of lengths, some are less than the length of the abdomen, and others, several times the length of the abdomen. The following three hypotheses are proposed to account for this variety of lengths: (1) Because of differences in the host stage attacked, there are differences in host vulnerability; i.e., mature host larvae feed at greater depths within fruit pulp and can be best reached with a longer ovipositor. There is an implication that competition among the wasp species has selected for foraging on different host stages and that this diversifying selection has resulted in different ovipositor lengths. (2) Although longer ovipositors increase host range and thus have competitive advantages, they may be heavy, awkward, and expensive to move around. If so, species with longer ovipositors might have to invest more in locomotion (reflected in wing size) and less in reproductive capacity (numbers of mature eggs held in the ovarial calyx). Balancing selection would then maintain both short ovipositor-small winged-high fecundity species and long ovipositor-large wing-low fecundity species. (3) Although there are niche overlaps among the species, each has a “core environment” determined by factors such as temperature, humidity, seasonality, and host diversity. Ovipositor lengths have evolved to met the requirements of these specialized environments, and are not due to interspecific competition mediated by ovipositor length; i.e., there has been no diversifying or balancing selection for differences in ovipositor length. Hypothesis number 1 fails because all the species attack similar host stages. Neither was there support for hypothesis number 2. There were no correlations between wing size, or potential fecundity, and ovipositor length. The lack of correlation between species-pairs niche overlaps and differences in species-pairs relative ovipositor length is most consistent with hypothesis number 3. That is, because species with similar ovipositors are neither more or less likely to co-occur in the same samples from various fruits and locations than species with different ovipositor lengths it may be that species interactions are unimportant in the evolution of ovipositor lengths. If so, the lack of a pattern of competition made easily recognizable by differences in ovipositor length could influence biological control tactics. For example, if it is difficult to predict the abilities of newly introduced species to integrate in the existing guild of natural enemies, it may be more prudent over the short term to concentrate on the conservation of the natural enemies already present rather than pursue the “classical” introductions of new species.

American beech gaps in the southern Appalachian mountains are currently threatened by an insect-mediated disease complex known as beech bark disease. Cryptococcus fagisuga Lindinger, or beech scale, a major component of beech bark disease, wounds trees through feeding on vascular tissue through the outer cambium. This feeding method leaves numerous wounds and provides entryways for infection by fungal pathogens. Allothrombium mitchelli Davis, a large red velvet mite, was found in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, where it was observed to feed on beech scale. First-instar larvae of A. mitchelli are quiescent, and deutonymphs are the only mobile immature stage. A. mitchelli probably has one generation per year with adult population peaks in late spring and early fall; deutonymph populations also peaked in early fall within the areas studied. Both adults and deutonymphs feed on beech scale. In 1996, mites were found on 22.1% of beech trees (n = 453) in selected plots; incidence was greatest at Sweat Heifer on 9 May (81%, n = 29). Mite incidence was significantly influenced by categorized aspect (χ² = 57.92, P < 0.0001, n = 453) and categorized elevation (χ² = 101.33, P < 0.0001, n = 453). A strong significant (0.4528, P < 0.0001) correlation was observed between mite incidence and elevation. A weak but significant negative correlation (−0.1341, P = 0.0001) was found between numbers of A. mitchelli on individual trees and beech scale ratings at Sweat Heifer and Indian Gap plots. Although their status as a biological control agent of beech scale is uncertain, A. mitchelli is one of only a few species that has been observed to feed consistently on beech scale.

Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) is an important pest of apples and has been at the center of a long-standing debate concerning modes of speciation. The fly has been proposed to speciate without geographic isolation (i.e., in sympatry) in the process of shifting and adapting to new host plants. Previous studies have shown that diapause-related traits play a key role in adapting apple- and hawthorn-infesting races of R. pomonella to a difference in the fruiting times (phenologies) of their respective host plants. These experiments indicated that prewinter temperature and its duration affected the survivorship and genetics of over-wintering R. pomonella pupae. However, the earlier work did not test whether photoperiod and light intensity, two environmental factors that also differ between the host races, affect the genetics of diapause. Here, we report that variation in photoperiod, but not light intensity, during the larval stage affects adult eclosion. Haw-origin larvae exposed to longer photoperiods (18:6 [L:D] h) eclosed significantly earlier that those experiencing shorter photoperiods (14:10 and 10:14 [L:D] h). We also confirmed previously observed genetic relationships between eclosion time and six allozyme loci displaying allele frequency differences between the haw and apple host races. However, we did not find a significant genetic response to photoperiod for any allozyme. Our results suggest that, while photoperiod cues can regulate R. pomonella diapause, daylength is probably of secondary importance relative to temperature and season length in genetically differentiating the host races.

We compared the lifespan of Macrocentrus grandii (Goidanich) adults fed a 50% sucrose solution at various intervals throughout their lives. Treatments included starvation, continuous feeding, feeding on the first day of life only, and feeding every second, third, or fourth day of life. Life expectancy for starved males and females was less than 3 d, and providing sugar during the first day of life increased life expectancy by 2 d for males and 4 d for females. Life expectancy was highest when adults were fed continuously (14 d for males and 21 d for females) or every 2 d (17 d for males and 23 d for females). The life expectancy of adults that were fed either every 3 or every 4 d ranged between 9 and 16 d. Together, these results demonstrate that a constant supply of sugars is not necessary to achieve maximum survivorship, and limited sugar availability may suffice to increase substantially the lifespan of M. grandii over starvation values. A series of anthrone tests was used to determine levels of gut sugars, simple storage sugars (‘body sugars’; primarily trehalose), and glycogen over the first 6 d of life of female and male M. grandii that were either fed 50% sucrose continuously, the first day of life only, or not at all. A single day of sugar feeding led to apparently maximum levels of gut sugars, body sugars, and glycogen, and parasitoids fed only on the first day of life maintained high levels of these nutrients for 1 d postfeeding. After this time, glycogen and gut sugars decreased substantially, but body sugar levels remained essentially constant. This pattern suggests a strategy in which gut sugars and glycogen are mobilized to maintain high levels of body sugars in starving parasitoids.

The number, external morphology and distribution of antennal sensilla of a predatory beetle, Trogossita japonica Reitter, were determined using scanning electron microscopy. A sexual dimorphism in antennal structure and in types and number of sensilla, indicative of their differential functions in the sexes, was apparent. The club segments have dense receptor fields composed of several distinct sensilla, and the terminal segment consists of a variety of sensory structures at maximum density. There was also a great difference in the numbers of certain types of sensilla on male and female club segments. A major difference occurred in the number of sensilla basiconica type 1, which are ≈150 in number, present on male terminal segment and none on the female. Sensilla basiconica type 3 on the terminal segment of the females were seven times more prevalent than in males, indicating their role in host volatile identification. A unique kind of sensilla basiconica pegs, with a terminal nipple and with several of them arranged in clusters in deep pits, were observed on the surface of the club segments in both sexes.

The southeastern boll weevil, the Mexican boll weevil, and the thurberia weevil are considered to be morphologically similar but behaviorally different variants of the same species, Anthonomus grandis Boheman. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified 9.2-kb section of the mitochondrial DNA was cleaved with restriction enzymes. RFLPs of weevils from three cotton growing locations in Texas and one in northeastern Mexico were compared with thurberia weevil from three sites in Arizona. Six haplotypes were observed in the Texas/Mexico collections and 12 haplotypes were found among the thurberia weevil. There were no shared haplotypes between these two groups. Polymorphism was observed within the weevil types. The three thurberia weevil locations exhibit some geographic isolation and exhibit differences in both the haplotypes present and the relative frequencies of the haplotypes. Only one haplotype was recovered at all three Arizona sites. The Texas/Mexico samples showed less genetic variability with the northern most site having the lowest polymorphism. 52/53 of these weevils appear to be genetically southeastern boll weevil. Two haplotypes were shared by all four of these populations and comprised 72% of the insects examined. The range of genetic distances between haplotypes was <0.001–0.022. The Mexican boll weevil was not explicitly examined; however, three individuals were discovered that appear to represent a genetically distinct third population. One was from Mexico and the other two were from a thurberia weevil site. These three individuals may represent the Mexican boll weevil. The results include apparent diagnostic restriction fragment differences between the thurberia weevil and the southeastern boll weevil that could be used to help determine whether future weevils found in Arizona or California cotton are thurberia weevil, southeastern boll weevil, or another population of weevils.

Recent advances in molecular genetic techniques have made it possible to conduct broad-scale comparisons of genome organization, structure and function among taxa. Here, we test for synteny (conservation of linkage relationships) between Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen) and Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) flies in different superfamilies of Schizophora estimated to have diverged ≈50–55 mya. Our strategy involved searching GenBank to identify Drosophila homologues to sequenced and mapped Rhagoletis clones isolated from a cDNA library. Linkage maps for the homologues were compared between the flies using release I (CD-ROM version) of the D. melanogaster genome project. We report evidence for broad-scale synteny between Drosophila and Rhagoletis. The entire right arm of chromosome 3 in Drosophila was comprised of genes mapping to linkage group II in Rhagoletis, while the left arm contained only Rhagoletis linkage group I markers. In addition, five of the six homologues identified on the Drosophila X chromosome were genes from linkage group III in Rhagoletis, while the left arm of Drosophila chromosome 2 was mainly composed of Rhagoletis linkage group V loci. Although gene order was not entirely conserved within linkage blocks displaying synteny, there were instances of possible co-linearity, some of which involved regions of the genome associated with sympatric host race formation and speciation in R. pomonella. Much more detailed mapping studies of R. pomonella are needed to confirm this, however, as comparisons among Drosophila subgenera have revealed extensive differences in gene order due to fixed paracentric inversions. Nevertheless, our finding of broad-scale synteny between R. pomonella and D. melanogaster suggests that a comparative genomics approach could be useful for addressing a number of basic and applied issues in Diptera, including speciation, systematics and biocontrol.

With the exception of responses to semiochemicals, host selection behaviors of D. frontalis are largely unstudied. To better understand the host finding behavior of D. frontalis, and to identify potential visual disruptants, we evaluated the response of D. frontalis to multiple-funnel traps of eight different colors. Multiple-funnel traps provide an attractive vertical silhouette, similar to a host stem, that aids in capturing bark beetles and allows for controlled evaluation of visual cues. Evaluation of mean trap catch of each color by analysis of variance (ANOVA) produced two separate groups: white and yellow traps caught significantly fewer D. frontalis than the other six colors tested (black, blue, brown, gray, green, red). Examination of spectral reflectance curves showed that the eight colors could be naturally placed into two groups, those with high peak reflectance (white and yellow) and those with low peak reflectance (black, blue, brown, gray, green, red). When high and low peak reflectance were substituted for color in a separate ANOVA, reflectance group was as good as color at explaining the variability in trap catch (r² = 0.88 versus 0.92). Therefore, hue (dominant wavelength) was unimportant in affecting D. frontalis host finding behavior at the reflectance levels we tested and, thus, we found no strong evidence that differential wavelength sensitivity affected the response of D. frontalis. These results show that dark colored silhouettes (those with low reflectance values), regardless of hue, are best for capturing D. frontalis, while white or yellow are the best candidate colors for disrupting host finding.

Sexually mature, mated female Mexican fruit flies, Anastrepha ludens (Loew), from a laboratory culture, whether starved or not, were attracted to grapefruit in a wind tunnel. Females starved for 24 h were more strongly attracted than fed females but those starved for 48 h were equivalent to fed females in responsiveness. There were no significant differences in propensity to attempt oviposition on grapefruit by fed or starved females. Sexually mature, mated males, whether fed or starved for 24 h, were not attracted to grapefruit, but those starved for 48 h were attracted.