Sequences of the DNA barcode region of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene were obtained from 3 8 species of northeastern Palaearctic bats to assess patterns of genetic diversity. These results confirmed earlier findings of deep phylogeographic splits in four pairs of vicariant species (Myotis daubentoniilpetax, M. nattererilbombinus, Plecotus aurituslognevi and Miniopterus schreibersiil fuliginosus) and suggested previously unreported splits within Eptesicus nilssoni and Myotis aurascens. DNA barcodes support all taxa raised to species rank in the past 25 years and suggest that an additional species — Myotis sibiricus — should be separated from Myotis brandtii. Major phylogeographic splits occur between European and Asian populations of Myotis aurascens, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and Myotis frater; smaller scale splits are observed between insular and mainland populations in the Far East (M. frater, Myotis ikonnikovi and Murina ussuriensis) and also between southeastern Europe and Ciscaucasia (Myotis daubentonii, Plecotus auritus, and Pipistrellus pipistrellus). One confirmed case of sequence sharing was observed in our dataset — Eptesicus nilssoni/serotinus. This study corroborates the utility of DNA barcodes as a taxonomic assessment tool for bats.

We report records for eight species of tube-nosed bats, Murina, from Laos. Murina cyclotis is the most widespread in the region, although DNA barcodes of specimens currently identified as M. cyclotis suggest high genetic diversity within southeast Asia with the possibility that the form found in Indochina is not the same as that from the type locality on the Indian subcontinent. We recognize M. peninsularis from peninsular Malaysia and Borneo as distinct from M. cyclotis. Murina huttoni is known from only one locality in Laos but has been reported from scattered localities elsewhere in southeast Asia including Vietnam and Thailand. Specimens previously reported as M. tubinaris from southeast Asia, including Laos, were recently recognized as a distinct species, M. cineracea; however, we suggest M. feae is the appropriate name for this species, based on examination of the holotype from Myanmar. Specimens formerly reported as M. aurata from Laos are now referred to the recently described M. eleryi from Vietnam. A specimen from northern Laos matches the description of M. harrisoni in morphology, while genetically it matches M. tiensa. Comparisons with additional material from Vietnam, as well as DNA from both type specimens, suggest that M. tiensa is a junior synonym of M. harrisoni. We also report M. harrisoni from Thailand and Myanmar, based on specimens originally published as M. leucogaster. The latter species is not otherwise known to occur in Thailand or Myanmar and should be removed from those countries' lists. The recently described M. walstoni is here reported for the first time from Laos. Two additional species from Laos do not match any currently described species, and are here described as new; both are also reported from Vietnam and one from Cambodia.

The greater short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus sphinx) is a social species, widely distributed in southern Asia. We used microsatellite and mfDNA markers to assess whether this fruit bat has a sex biased dispersal pattern. We also assessed signatures of sex-biased migration using microsatellite data. No significant heterozygosity deficiency (F_IS), lower assignment value (mAIc) and variance of assignment (vAIc) were found between females and males, which does not support the hypothesis that dispersal in C. sphinx is sex biased. When microsatellite genotype frequency and mfDNA haplotype distribution patterns were subjected to the AMOVA, we found that genetic partitioning was higher at mfDNA (Φ_ST) than autosomal markers (F_ST) in both sexes. There is a higher value for males than females in both the mtDNA and microsatellite data, and both adult males and females also exhibited more variation within than among populations, but without significant results. Our results indicated that C. sphinx displayed various sexual population structures and there is no sex-biased dispersal, which is in accordance with concomitant ecological studies.

Non-invasive population genetics has become a valuable tool in ecology and conservation biology, allowing genetic studies of wild populations without the need to catch, handle or even observe the study subjects directly. We address some of the concerns regarding the limitations of using non-invasive samples by comparing the quality of population genetic information gained through DNA extracted from faecal samples and biopsy samples of two elusive bat species, Myotis mystacinus and Myotis nattereri. We demonstrate that DNA extracted from faeces and tissue samples gives comparable results for frequency based population genetic analyses, despite the occurrence of genotyping errors when using faecal DNA. We conclude that non-invasive genetic sampling for population genetic analysis in bats is viable, and although more labour-intensive and expensive, it is an alternative to tissue sampling, which is particularly pertinent when specimens are rare, endangered or difficult to capture.

We tested the effects of aspect ratio, wing loading and body size (forearm length) on four estimators of molecular diversity (based on mitochondrial D-loop and cytochrome-b DNA sequences) among eight Afro-Malagasy species of free-tailed (Family Molossidae) bats. As expected based on many previous animal studies conducted at broader taxonomic scales, F_ST was significantly negatively correlated with wing loading (a good proxy for dispersal ability), even after correcting for phylogeny. However, haplotype diversity, nucleotide diversity and k (the mean number of nucleotide differences between sequences) were not significantly correlated with body size, aspect ratio or wing loading. According to the metabolic rate hypothesis, we expected a significant negative correlation between k and body size. No such significant correlation was obtained, which is attributed to species differences in population size and the timing of past bottlenecks inferred from population demographic data.

Here we report a right dentary of Peter's ghost-faced bat Mormoops megalophylla from an archeological site in northern Matanzas province, western Cuba. The specimen was excavated from a pre-Columbian archeological cave deposit in association with stone tools, bivalve shells, snake and fish vertebrae, and capromyid (rodent) postcranial elements. Although the deposit is not directly dated, the relationship of the assemblage to the time of Amerindian occupation in this cave suggests an age between 1600 and 850 years BP Therefore, this report may constitute a probable ‘last occurrence’ date for M. megalophylla in Cuba. This bat is believed to have gone extirpated in the West Indies because of a combination of habitat-area loss due to climatic turnover during the late Pleistocene and human disturbance later in the Holocene. Based on new evidence, we add that climate-related bat extirpations could lag for several thousands of years after the onset of new environmental conditions, and that these can be easily accelerated by anthropogenic disturbance. This information can help improve the understanding of chiropteran diversity, causes, and timing of extirpations in Cuba and the West Indies.

The diet of the Central European trawling vespertilionid, the pond bat Myotis dasycneme, was studied in a nursery roost in the postglacial lakeland of northern Poland , based on a very large (n = 1,725) sample of faecal pellets. This is only the third published dietary study of the species, considered to have a high conservation priority in Europe. Pond bats'prey was dominated by non-biting midges (Chironomidae — both imagines and pupae) and caddis flies (Trichoptera). However, the spectrum of prey was relatively broad, with 16 taxa, including 12 recorded for the first time in the diet of M. dasycneme. Frequency of occurrence (0%) of particular taxa varied through the season. 0% of caddis flies and non-biting midges in droppings were negatively correlated (r_s= -0.75, P < 0.05); exceptionally high 0% of caddis flies, being larger (and presumably more profitable) prey, occurred in late June and July, coinciding with high energy demands of lactating females. No evidence of piscivory was revealed.

The objective of the study was to describe the diet composition of western barbastelle bat (Barbastella barbastellus), its seasonal changes and main factors determining trophic niche of the species. Barbastelle bat feeds predominantly on moths and has the narrowest trophic niche within the entire studied bat community. A comparison of the food supply and the diet composition showed selectivity for larger species of moths. An increasing of absolute abundance of preferred larger moths within summer is accompanied with narrowing of bat's trophic niche. This pattern corresponds well with the conclusions of optimal foraging theory. Larger moths are preferred even in a period of their low relative abundance within a peak of abundance of smaller species. There are no abrupt seasonal changes in the bat's diet within season, but the narrow pool of available food supply seems to determine the trophic niche breadth within low prey diversity periods in early spring and late autumn. The exception is a late autumn period; most probably due to a change in food supply are preferred larger moths replaced in the diet by smaller individuals. Most of the moths' species cease to fly and chiefly only smaller moth species are flying and attracted by UV light. Larger moths still occur at studied area at that time, but they display minimal flying activities and they are detected using vegetation beating and sweeping. Furthermore, syntopic motheating foliage gleaner (Plecotus auritus) still feeds on larger moths at that time. This may indicate that the change in the diet of B. barbastellus is a consequence of poor or absent gleaning abilities of this species, which is not able to pick up the prey from the surface as P. auritus. Different hunting strategies are probably efficient trophic niche partitioning mechanisms reducing interspecific competition between these syntopic moth eating bats.

The genus Murina has a wide geographic distribution and includes about 35 species, but very little information is available on the maternity behaviour of any of them. We conducted a preliminary study of a maternity colony of Murina ussuriensis in warm temperate rain forest of Yakushima, Japan. Day roosts of six nursing females were located by radio-telemetry. During the eight days of the study 18 maternity roost locations were confirmed. The nine roosts that were clearly visible included four types: vertically suspended clusters of dead leaves, tree hollows, a crevice in a root plate and a completely exposed site under a branch. Whenever the same female was located on successive days, she had switched from her previous roost, and none of the roosts was re-used by a radio-tagged female during the study period. The number of individuals recorded roosting together ranged from two (a mother with infant) to 22 individuals. The first emergence of an adult female occurred between 13 and 47 minutes after sunset. Mothers returned to the roost about 30 minutes after their first emergence, repeatedly hovering near the roost, landing and departing again. Some offspring left the roost independently, while non-volant offspring were carried away by an adult, presumably the mother. Various types of social calls were recorded, beginning when the first mother returned to the roost, and then almost continuously until the last individual left the roost. These preliminary results suggest that maternity colonies show very frequent roost-switching, may exhibit fission-fusion behaviour and have an extensive vocal repertoire.

Based on mark-recapture data, we studied the postnatal growth of Marshall's horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus marshalli) in Hekou County, Yunnan Province, China. Our results detected no significant differences both in body mass and in forearm length between males and females at birth. On average, young bats were not agile fliers until 31 days of age. Body mass and forearm length of pups followed a linear pattern of growth until day 13, with mean growth rates of 0.17 g/day and 1.22 mm/day, respectively, and thereafter growth rates decreased. Length of the total epiphyseal gap of the fourth metacarpal-phalangeal joint showed a linear increase up to 10 days followed by a linear decrease until day 40 with a mean rate of 0.09 mm/day. Together, two equations permitted estimation of the age of R. marshalli pups between 1 and 40 days of age. Of the three nonlinear growth models (logistic, Gompertz, and von Bertalanffy), the logistic equation provided the best fit to the empirical curves for body mass and forearm length.

Human-generated noise may alter animal activity patterns and mask vocal signals. We used field-based observations and a playback experiment to investigate whether aircraft activity and noise alter the evening activity of New Zealand long-tailed bats (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) a cryptic threatened species. Low-altitude aircraft activity temporally overlapped bat activity near the runway of an international airport, but was unlikely to mask echolocation pulses as aircraft noise was most intense at ≤ 10 kHz. There was no statistically significant difference in mean bat activity during and after overflights compared with pre-aircraft activity. The experiment revealed that playback stimuli (aircraft passes and two controls: silent tracks and blackbird (Turdus merula) calls) differed in their effect on bat activity at two sites, one with low and one with high aircraft activity. Simulated aircraft noise and silent tracks reduced bat activity when compared with blackbird calls (P < 0.05). Bats may have found it easier to detect observers during the playback of silent tracks (sampling involved walking circuits with hand-held detectors), and may have reduced activity to a perceived threat. This result suggests that broadcasted aircraft noise is no more disturbing than researcher presence during playback trials. Evidence for a site × playback stimuli interaction (P = 0.054) suggests that bats at the site with high aircraft activity may have habituated to aircraft noise. Both correlative and experimental data suggests that aircraft activity and noise may not have major impacts on long-tailed bat activity.

The climate in Mediterranean ecosystems is characterised by aestival hot temperatures and water shortages which may affect the behaviour of bats living in these environments. We evaluated the influence of habitat type, habitat structure, and water availability on the foraging behaviour of the Mehely's horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus mehelyi) using classification and regression tree (CART) analysis. Twenty-five individuals were successively radio-tracked during May and June in two colonies (Marias and Aurora) of south-western Spain. Twelve females were tracked in Marias and 13 males in Aurora. Both localities differed in the availability of habitat types: in Marias savannah-like oak woodland dominated the landscape (81% of the study area), whereas in Aurora pasture were dominant (64% of the area). Rhinolophus mehelyi always foraged in woodland; preferentially in cluttered spaces, but also in less-cluttered/more-open ones, while open spaces were completely avoided. Bats foraged close to water bodies, preferentially at distances below 500 m, where they may readily have access to drinking water or may encounter higher insect abundances. The similarity between sexes on the preferences of habitat structure and distance to water suggest that the disparity in the habitat types used by males in Aurora and females in Marias may be due to local availability. Riparian forest is an important habitat for foraging and commuting, and should be scrupulously protected. Conservation strategies should also include the protection of woodland of diverse structure and linear landscape elements. We recommend the creation of water bodies in woodlands to enhance the suitability of foraging sites that might be underused.

Frugivorous bats respond differently to changes in the landscape, depending on their morphological and ecological characteristics, so only some species cross deforested areas and disperse seeds in these environments. In this study we analyzed the plant species dispersed by bats in tropical rain forest and patches of secondary vegetation of a forest reserve in Mesoamerica. We expected that the most common bat species in secondary vegetation would be the most important dispersers, favoring the regeneration of vegetation, compared to those that forage mainly in tropical forest. With a capture effort of 5520 net hours, we caught 1718 bats representing 16 frugivorous species. Based on the analyses of fecal samples the most common plants in the bats' diets were pioneer species, mainly from the families Piperaceae, Urticaceae, Solanaceae, Fabaceae, and Muntingiaceae. The most important bat species to seed dispersal in the secondary vegetation were Carollia sowelli, Sturnira lilium, Glossophaga soricina and Carollia perspicillata. Principal components analysis separated the two species of Carollia and S. lilium, whose diets were dominated by plants of the family Piperaceae, from bat species that forage mainly in the tropical forest and whose diets were dominated by plants from the families Moraceae and Anacardiaceae.

Science has searched for tools to indicate, measure or predict the responses of organisms to environmental disturbances. Neotropical bats have been identified as potential indicators and the number of articles using them is increasing. But contradictory results indicate the need to assess the viability to widely use bats for that purpose. A review on bat responses to forest fragmentation, logging, agricultural conversion or plant sucession was performed to detect patterns and problems, and to identify what is the emerging message. Variations of up to 17 times in the number of replicates, 360 times in the size of experimental areas, 166 times in the size of control areas, and 36 times in captures were detected. Almost 90% of the studies used mistnets, resulting in analyses biased towards phyllostomids. No clear pattern was observed regarding bat responses to the disturbances tested, from no effects on species richness between fragments and control areas, to higher abundances in the surrounding matrices. Most of the studies indicated species-specific responses, and conclusions were based, on average, on 20 species, a fraction of the regional richness. Neotropical bats should be used cautiously as indicators and generalizations should be avoided. Despite the problems identified, bats may contribute to the study of the topic in the Neotropics, as long as basic precautions are followed.

In this study, the physiological and behavioural factors that influence infestation levels of wing mites on a large sample of Daubenton's bat (Myotis daubentonii) were investigated. This is the first study to present a comprehensive data set that includes male M. daubentonii over the entire seasonal activity period. In males, parasite load increased during spermatogenesis, which can be explained by high testosterone levels acting as an immunosuppressant. Prevalence rates and infestation levels in males were always lower than those of females and juveniles, possibly due to grooming behaviour which may be energetically restricted in females and inefficient in juveniles. Colony size did not appear to influence parasite load in males, but was found to have an influence in females and juveniles. Larger group sizes in males might not increase parasite load since grooming behaviour and roost switching are frequent. This study showed that parasite load in free-ranging Daubenton's bats is sex-, season- and age-specific due to variations in behaviour and physiology.

Echolocation calls produced by bats contain information on the emitter that could be used in social interactions. Nevertheless, little is known about the whether such information actually is being used by bats. Here we tested the ability of two horseshoe bat species (Rhinolophus mehelyi and R. euryale; n = 20 each) to discriminate conspecific male from conspecific female echolocation calls and vice versa. Behavioural data from a habituation-discrimination paradigm revealed that both species were able to recognize the sex of conspecifics from their calls, providing evidence that cues on the sex of the emitter are encoded in echolocation signals. While our data support that the sex-specific acoustic cues are not (just) the horseshoe bats' constant-frequency call part, their nature remains enigmatic. This is the second study to show that bats can recognize the caller's gender from echolocation calls and the first to do so for ‘high-duty-cycle bats’; those that use calls with a prominent constant-frequency (CF) component.

The analysis of social calls emitted by bats in the Pipistrellus genus has played an important role in assessing cryptic diversity and in investigating reproductive strategies and foraging ecology of these vespertilionids. Our study deals with social call structure of a recently discovered species, Pipistrellus hanaki. Because it shares a common ancestor with P. pygmaeus, we hypothesized that as in the other species from this group social call structure in P. hanaki retains the basic design observed in other bats from the same genus. We also hypothesized that as in other pipistrelles such calls fulfill context-dependent functions, being used by both foraging and mating bats for different purposes. However, we found that these calls have a structure rather different from that seen in most pipistrelles. Two different types of multi-harmonic, broad-band and long-duration social calls were identified, with distinctive temporal structures. Single component, frequency modulated-quasi constant frequency (FM-QCF) calls were emitted during summer at foraging sites where feeding buzzes were regularly produced. In autumn, when feeding buzz rates decreased and males caught at recording sites had prominent testes, a second type of single or multi-component calls with a fluctuating frequency over time was more frequent. Unlike the typical multi-component social calls recorded in several Pipistrellus species, our results suggest that social calls used by foraging or mating P. hanaki have markedly different structures. Because social calls of bats are speciesspecific and may function in reproductive isolation, we hypothesize that differentiation of social calls in P. hanaki has been associated with the divergence of this species from P. pygmaeus.

Scotophilus kuhlii is distributed in many urban environments, yet the ecology of this species is poorly known. The morphology, echolocation call structure, diet, and foraging areas of S. kuhlii were studied on Hainan Island, south China from March to November 2006. Data from 85 individuals indicate that S. kuhlii is a medium-sized bat with 50.41 ± 1.36 ( ± SE) mm forearm length and 19.81 ± 3.47 g body mass. The wing morphology with high wing-loading (11.38 ± 1.95 N/m²) and moderate aspect ratio (6.96 ± 0.75) indicates that S. kuhlii flies fast and forages in open habitat and at the edges of cluttered environments. Echolocation calls of S. kuhlii consist of a fundamental and up to four harmonics, with a dominant frequency of 45.72 ± 2.09 kHz, and call shape suggests that this species is adapted to forage in open environments. Data from mist-netting and acoustic detection indicated that S. kuhlii foraged mainly around the crown of trees and street lights. Nine insect orders were recorded in its diet, with Lepidoptera (97.46%, by frequency) and Coleoptera (64.72 ± 2.37%, by volume) constituting the main prey, together with Hemiptera (19.99 ± 1.25%) and Hymenoptera (9.43 ± 1.14%). There was significant seasonal variation in the diet of S. kuhlii: Coleoptera increased from March to May, and then decreased to August, while Hemiptera and Hymenoptera showed the inverse trend.

In Neotropical forests fruits are key resources for a great diversity of vertebrates, including many frugivorous bats, but little is known about the factors that determine their availability. We studied forest inundation and river banks as determinants of the spatial variation in the availability of fruits for bats in lowland Amazonia. We sampled the bat assemblage composition, fruit availability, and bat diet in terra firme upland forest and in two types of flooded forest — várzea and igapó. Two distinct frugivore bat guilds were found in both terra firme and flooded forests: (1) canopy frugivores, feeding mainly on Ficus and Cecropia, and (2) understorey frugivores that feed mainly on Vismia and Piper. Fruits consumed by the canopy guild were more abundant in the flooded forests — particularly in the nutrient-rich várzea, but those dominating the understory guild diet were most abundant in terra firme. Availability of both fruit genera most consumed by the canopy guild was greater along river banks than in the forest matrix. For the understory guild, the greater abundance of Vismia along river banks was compensated for by a higher availability of Piper in the matrix. In conclusion, both factors influence the availability of fruits, although differently for the canopy and understory guilds. The resulting differences in fruit abundance may explain variations in bat assemblages of the different forest types. River banks play a particularly important role in providing food for bats of both guilds, but are under particularly heavy human pressure.

Multiple studies at a local scale on food items consumed by coexisting species are necessary to determine patterns of resource partitioning among phyllostomid bats. Here we report the food items consumed by 11 phyllostomid bats and the similarity among the diets of the six most abundant species in the Pantanal wetlands of Brazil. We identified food items from fecal samples collected from 347 bats captured between 2002 and 2007. Most individuals (76%) fed on fruits. Arthropods and pollen were present in 56% and 37% of the fecal samples, respectively. Fruits of Ficus species and Cecropia pachystachya were mainly consumed by Artibeus jamaicensis, Platyrrhinus lineatus and Glossophaga soricina, whereas Piper species were the main fruits consumed by Sturnira lilium and Carollia perspicillata. Bauhinia ungulata was the most common source of pollen consumed by ten bat species, including Chrotopterus auritus for which pollen consumption has never been described before. Lepidoptera occurred in higher frequencies than other arthropod orders among fecal samples, but Coleoptera was the most important order for the insectivorous Lophostoma silvicolum. Overall, phyllostomids in the Pantanal fed on a low diversity of fruit and pollen species, and representatives of arthropod orders, appearing to induce a more ‘omnivorous’ diet regarding food types (fruits, floral resources, and arthropods) with a high overlap of food sources.

I analysed bat fatalities reported from 56 wind farms in the La Rioja, Soria and Aragón regions of northern Spain. Post-construction monitoring surveys revealed 147 fatalities belonging to seven species of bats, namely Pipistrellus pipistrellus (59%), P. kuhlii (14%), Hypsugo savii (18%), Barbastella barbastellus, Nyctalus lasiopterus, N. leisleri and Tadarida teniotis (< 5% each). In the mostly low elevations sites in Aragon, fatalities occurred between March and December and peaked (76%) from July to October. In La Rioja and Soria, where wind farms mostly are located at higher elevations, fatalities occurred between May and October and without any obvious late summer peak. The reports reviewed here revealed many deficiencies in their protocols that prevent comparisons with other studies nationally and internationally. For example, only five reports (9%) accounted for searcher efficiency or carcass removal biases. Consequently, fatality estimates appeared to be negatively associated with the number of turbines in the wind farm and also with the monitoring frequency, so that fewer bats seem to be killed when the monitoring intervals were longer. This should be of considerable concern for environmental authorities in Spain and elsewhere. Despite rapid development of wind power facilities in Spain, the impact surveys that are carried out at present are clearly inadequate with respect to bats.

In the absence of visual cues, chemical signals are especially important for nocturnal mammals such as bats, because they facilitate individual recognition, communication, and mate selection. In a recent study, it was reported that adult males of the Curaçaoan long-nosed bat, Leptonycteris curasoae, develop an odoriferous dorsal patch during the short mating season. It was postulated that dorsal patches signal health condition to females, and that females are preferentially attracted to the odor of males with dorsal patches. The chemical characterization of the dorsal patch is key to understanding its implications in chemical communication in a sexual context. In the present study, organic compounds collected from dorsal patches of males of L. curasoae from northwestern Venezuela were extracted using solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) techniques and tentatively identified using GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry). Nineteen compounds were present in 75% or more of the patches examined: 3-methyl-2-buten-1-thiol, acetic acid, 2′-aminoacetophenone, diacetyl, 2-pentanone, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, 2-nonanone, acetamide, 2-undecanone, piperidinone, 4-methylquinazoline, 2,4-dimethylquinazoline, 3-methyl-2,5-pyrrolidinedione, 2-butanone, 2-methylfuran, 3-methyl-2-butenal, δ-valerolactone, 3-methyl-2-butenoic acid, and 2-methyl-2-butenoic acid. Although some of these compounds have been reported as important in female attraction among other male mammals during their respective breeding seasons, the actual function of these chemicals in L. curasoae remains to be determined. Some of these compounds have also been identified as natural insecticides, and this may be associated with lower ectoparasite loads reported on males with dorsal patches. These results, when considered along with previous observations, suggest that the dorsal patch in males of L. curasoae promotes the attraction of females during the mating season, and/or provides protection against ectoparasites.

The organophosphorous (OP) pesticide fenthion is widely used in commercial fruit industry and orchards in South America. Among the metabolic effects in mammals caused by fenthion, hyperglycemia occurs via the activation of hepatic metabolic pathways, which may interfere with the function of several organs and systems. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of acute and sub-chronic levels of fenthion on energy metabolism and liver morphology of frugivorous bats (Artibeus lituratus), which usually feed on fruits cultivated on South American plantations where fenthion is used. Animals were fed fruit treated with fenthion by immersion of fruit in a solution containing fenthion (500 ppm) and an adhesive spreader (200 ppm). Blood glucose levels did not change due to fenthion treatment, but muscle glycogen content increased and carcass fatty acids decreased after acute exposure. An increase in hepatocyte cell diameter further characterized as an increase in vacuolization was observed. The results indicate that fenthion may affect some components of energy metabolism and promote alterations in hepatocyte morphology in frugivorous bats when applied to cultivated fruits at the recommended rates.

Cynopterus sphinx is a frugivorous bat also known to feed regularly on leaves. This raises the question whether microorganisms capable of digesting such a diet are present in the gut. In the present study cellulolytic and xylanolytic bacteria were isolated from the intestine of C. sphinx on Berg's agar medium containing carboxymethyl cellulose and xylan. The isolated cultivable cellulose and xylan degrading bacteria were characterized biochemically and identified to be Bacillus sp., Clostridium sp., Streptococcus sp., and Staphylococcus sp. Among the cultivable bacteria from the intestine of the insectivorous Hipposideros fulvus, which was used as a control, no cellulolytic and xylanolytic bacteria could be isolated. We hypothesize that leaves could be a carbohydrate source for bats. By isolating polysaccharide-degrading bacteria from the intestine of C. sphinx, we infer that they help in digestion of xylan and soluble cellulose in their diet.