Indigenous knowledge systems began as the first humans used plants and animals for food, medicine, fuel and other uses. Particularly for animals, this inter-generational ethnozoological knowledge was transmitted orally and has not been thoroughly documented and checked. Yet indigenous knowledge is crucial to assess sustainability of bio-resources and will inform reachable management goals. One such example from southern Africa is the much favoured edible stinkbug Encosternum delegorguei Spinola In this paper we review existing information on this beneficial insect and integrate observations on host plants, insect biology, seasonal distribution and socio-economics from South Africa and to a lesser degree Zimbabwe. Moreover, we show that research originating from Malawi, in the last 37 years, have misnamed the edible stinkbug as Nezara robusta Distant and that the correct identification is E. delegorguei. Other studies on edible insects have been done on lepidoptera, where the larval stage is harvested during the summer season. In contrast, E. delegorguei has incomplete metamorphosis and the adult is harvested during winter, a time of food scarcity, suggesting that further investigations are warranted on this culturally and economically important insect. Adaptive management and increased exploitation of E. delegorguei are potential development options to investigate.

Current trends in global honeybee population changes have been linked to drastic declines in honeybee populations caused by complex interactions between pathogens, arthropod pests such as Varroa, pesticides, honeybee stress and habitat loss. Although substantial information exists for this sudden decline in honeybee populations in Europe and North America, in Africa the effect of this threat continues to draw debate. Despite recent reports showing the presence of V. destructor mites across the continent, knowledge on pathogens associated with bees and this mite in various parts of the continent is scanty. This review provides a comprehensive update on the documented diversity and geographic distribution of honeybee pathogens and points to the need of further information on these constraints of honeybee health.

Tephritid fruit flies are serious pests in Mauritius, of which Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is one. One of the pathogens of fruit flies is Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin; the introduction of this entomopathogen into the wild fly population would be beneficial for suppression of fruit fly populations. Five releases were made to study the dispersal behaviour and survival of sterile B. zonata males either treated or untreated with dry conidia of B. bassiana, in vegetable plantations bordered with papaya and mango trees in northern Mauritius from April 2010 to December 2012. The flies used were reared for ≈172 generations in the laboratory. Results showed that the dispersal behaviour and post-release survival were different for the two types of sterile males. Recapture rates of B. bassiana-treated sterile males (2.0 ± 1.4 %) were significantly lower than those of untreated flies (6.2 ± 5.5 %). However, the recapture rates for both types of males were within acceptable limits for release—recapture studies with mass-reared and irradiated fruit flies. Up to day 4 after release the percentage recovery of sterile B. zonata males untreated and treated with B. bassiana was 76 % and 81 %, respectively; 90 % of the recovered sterile flies from both groups were recovered up to 100 m from the release point, and only 4 % at a distance between 150 m and 200 m from the release point. Our results suggest that sterile B. zonata males could potentially be used as vectors of B. bassiana to supplement suppression of this pest in a sterile insect release programme.

Darkling beetles are representative insects in the Sahara Desert where the gregarization of the desert locust occurs. Although the abundance of darkling beetles is used as an environmental bioindicator after locust control operations with chemical pesticides, an appropriate sampling technique taking into account their behavioural characteristics has not been developed. The present study investigated the effects of environmental factors, including the presence of bait, light, air and ground surface temperature, as well as humidity, on diurnal activity and sheltering behaviour of the darkling beetle, Pimelia senegalensis Olivier in the Sahara Desert. We compared the effectiveness of baited and unbaited pitfall traps, in terms of numbers and timing of beetle captures. Few beetles were trapped before dusk, irrespective of the presence of bait. The beetles started moving around dusk. The baited pitfall traps were found to be more effective than unbaited ones. Field-collected adults previously maintained in shade were exposed to either direct sunlight or shade for 30 min every two hours from 08:00 to 20:00. High mortality was observed only for the unshaded specimens between 12:00 and 14:00, when the ground surface temperature rose above 50 °C. Observation of the diurnal sheltering behaviour using a pipe refuge showed that P. senegalensis tended to shelter inside the pipe during daytime, coming out only after dusk. These results suggested that baited pitfall traps deployed after dusk were effective for sampling the beetles, in accordance with the nocturnality and sheltering behaviours of P. senegalensis that allow them to avoid lethal ground surface temperatures.

The olfactory and behavioural responses of groundnut seed-beetle, Caryedon serratus Olivier to semiochemicals isolated from conspecific insects as well as from groundnut seed headspace volatiles were investigated by coupled Gas Chromatography-Electroantennogram (GC-EAD) and Y-tube olfactometer bioassays. Significant orientation responses of male bruchids to the headspace volatiles from females and orientation responses of both sexes of seed beetles to headspace volatiles from male extracts confirm the existence of both sex and aggregation pheromone systems in C. serratus. Coupled GC-EAD analyses of headspace volatiles of female extract revealed seven bioactive peaks with strongest antennal responses of males towards flame ionization (FID) peaks at retention times of 3 min and 26 min, respectively. GC-EAD profiles of male headspace volatile extract indicated the presence of three distinct bioactive peaks elicited by both male and female antennae. These findings provided necessary leads for the identification of compounds in order to develop environmentally safe semiochemical-based control method for C. serratus.

Bioassay experiments for investigating the potential of recombinant nucleopolyhedroviruses expressing a scorpion toxin (AaIT), and a juvenile hormone esterase from Manduca sexta (Linnaeus) (AcMsJHE) in killing first instar larvae of Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) were tested in comparison with the wild type virus (AcMNPV). Protein expression and viral replication in insect were determined using SDS-PAGE and agarose gel electrophoresis. Results of lethal concentrations indicate that AaIT was the most efficient virus compared with AcMsJHE or AcMNPV. Median lethal concentration of AaIT was 4.0 × 10⁵ PIBs/ml compared with 7.0 × 10⁵ and 7.6 × 10⁵ PIBs/ml for AcMsJHE and AcMNPV, respectively. AaIT killed the treated first instar larvae of A. ipsilon markedly faster than AcMsJHE or AcMNPV, and significantly affected third instar larval weight after 96 hours post-infection (h.p.i.), which the LT₅₀s of AaIT were 94 and 89 h.p.i. when 1 × 10⁶ and 1 × 10⁸ PIBs/ml were used, respectively. SDS-PAGE for protein separation and agarose gel electrophoresis for DNA fragment visualization after restriction enzymes cut indicate that recombinant viruses might be replicated and expressed the inserted genes in A. ipsilon larvae. Protein profile showed differences among larval homogenate samples infected with recombinant viruses and wild type virus compared with control. DNA fragments of recombinant viruses run on 1% agarose gel indicate that there are different size and absence fragments when the total genome cut with EcoRI or PstI. Data of this work illustrated the efficiency of recombinant virus with a scorpion toxin gene on A. ipsilon, which indicate that the use of this virus within integrated pest management programme for A. ipsilon control may be useful.

Generalist predators are contentious biocontrol agents, especially ants that protect pestilent hemipterans from specialist predators and parasitoids. We attempted to force generalist, hemipteran-tending ants into a degree of dietary specificity by spatially partitioning and simplifying their trophic web. Pupae of Helicoverpa armigera, Thaumatotibia leucotreta and Ceratitis capitata introduced into a citrus orchard survived significantly better in plots where all nests of two pestilent, generalist ant species namely Anoplolepis custodiens and Pheidole megacephala had been poisoned compared with untreated control plots. In some plots the ants' foraging environments were partitioned into arboreal and epigaeic trophic webs using sticky barriers to prevent ground-nesting ants from ascending the trees. Plots partitioned this way showed suppressed levels of survival of emplaced pest pupae that were similar to those in unpartitioned control plots. Pest survival was significantly lower for T. leucotreta than for H. armigera and C. capitata, implicating prey body size or life cycle duration as factors in predation by ants. Pheidole megacephala and the predator complex as a whole can be valuable agents in the natural control of soil-pupating citrus pests if they are restricted to the ground. Trunk banding, rather than poisoning, is therefore recommended as part of managing ecologically mercenary ants in citrus orchards.

Baculovirus biopesticides are an important component of integrated pest management programmes worldwide. One such example is the Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus (CrleGV) which is used for the control of false codling moth, Thaumatotibia (= Cryptophlebia) leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a pest of citrus and other crops in South Africa. A potential problem associated with constant application of viral biopesticides is the differing susceptibility to the virus observed between different geographic populations of the insect host. This could be related to a number of factors, including biological performance and fitness of the target insect population. This study compared a variety of phenotypic traits between geographically distinct T. leucotreta populations collected from the Addo, Marble Hall, Citrusdal and Nelspruit regions of South Africa, and reared under laboratory conditions for several generations. Traits including pupal mass, female fecundity, egg hatch, pupal survival, adult eclosion and developmental time were used as parameters to measure biological performance and fitness. Insects from the Citrusdal region of the Western Cape exhibited significantly lower pupal mass, female fecundity, egg hatch, pupal survival, adult eclosion and the longest duration in larval and pupal development compared to the other colonies investigated. This is the first study to report differences in the performance of laboratory reared T. leucotreta from different geographic locations, and the findings may have important implications for the application of viral biopesticides for the control of this pest in South Africa.

The tomato leafminer Tuta absoluta Meyrick 1917 (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is a major pest of tomato Solanum lycopersicum Linnaeus 1753 (Solanales: Solanaceae) crops in Tunisia and the Western Palaearctic region. Current control programmes to manage this moth in greenhouses and open field tomato cultivations include, among others, pheromone-based strategies through male annihilation, mating disruption, and lure and kill technique. Despite recent advances in the efficiencies of pheromone lures and traps, low or moderate control has often been reported by researchers and growers. In 2012 the first known case of parthenogenesis in T. absoluta was reported in a French population of the pest. Although such reproduction mode was not proven to occur in nature, this discovery raised many concerns about the future of pheromones for the control of this moth, since their use is absolutely dependent on the assumption that the pest can only reproduce sexually. In this paper, we report the ability of three Tunisian populations of T. absoluta to reproduce asexually under laboratory conditions by assessing age-specific and total female fecundity, egg viability and adult longevity. Also, we discuss the possible implications for IPM programmes targeting this pest.

An revision of current knowledge on subfamily Anacharitinae for the Afrotropical Region is given. Two new species are described: Acanthaegilopsis hemicoriaceus Mata-Casanova & Pujade-Villar sp. n. and Xyalaspis subsaharica Mata-Casanova & Pujade-Villar sp. n. Diagnostic characters are illustrated and data about biology, distribution and morphological variability are discussed.

Cabbage, Brassica oleraceae L., and French beans, Phaseolus vulgaris L., are important vegetables grown in Ghana. However, attack by insect pests affects their quality and marketable yield. On-farm experiment was undertaken during the major rainy season of 2012 at Afari and Kpong, in the moist Semi Deciduous Forest and Coastal Savanna agro-ecological zones of Ghana, respectively, to explore the use of homemade extracts from fruit of hot pepper, Capsicum frutescens L. in the management of insect pests of cabbage and French beans. The treatments included a crude water extract from pepper fruit (20 g/l w/v), the semi-synthetic insecticide emamectin benzoate, ATTACK^® (1 ml/l v/v) and tap water as a control. The dominant pests found on cabbage at both locations were the diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (L.), the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) and the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius). On French beans, the flower thrips, Megalurothrips sjostedti (Trybom), the whitefly, B. tabaci and a range of leafhoppers, Empoasca spp. were found at both locations. The cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora (Koch) was present only at Kpong. Among the natural enemies found on cabbage at both locations were the larval parasitoid, Cotesia plutellae (Kurdjumov), the ladybird beetles, Cheilomenes spp., hoverflies and a number of spiders. On French beans, ladybirds and spiders were observed only at Kpong. Generally, the application of pepper and emamectin benzoate were effective in controlling some pests of cabbage and French beans and also conserved the natural enemies. Emamectin benzoate and pepper treated-plots had higher yields of French beans than the control plots at Afari. The potential of homemade pepper spray for pest management on smallholder farms, backyard gardens and in organic vegetable production systems is discussed.

Three new species of the genus Adelphenaldis from Africa (including Madagascar) are described: Adelphenaldis capensis sp. n., A. mesoafricanus sp. n., and A. noyesi sp. n. The female of A. subsurrectionis (Fischer, 2003) and the male of A. claricornis (Fischer, 1993) are recorded for the first time and described.

Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) is a highly polyphagous invasive pest in East Africa. Both adults and larvae cause considerable damage to horticultural crops and the pest is considered of quarantine importance for export to the European market. In an attempt to understand the behaviour of this pest for formulation of suitable management and mass-rearing strategies, a study was conducted to determine the effect of host plant on preference and performance of L. huidobrensis. Four host plants: Vicia faba L., Phaseolus vulgaris L., Pisum sativum L. (Fabaceae) and Lycopersicon esculentum M. (Solanaceae) were evaluated for their suitability for feeding, oviposition, development and pupal survival of L. huidobrensis under no-choice and choice conditions. The conditions simulated monoculture and intercrop systems, respectively. Lycopersicon esculentum was the most preferred host for feeding and oviposition, with mean feeding punctures of 23.34 ± 3.35 and 11.59 ± 1.36 per cm² for no-choice and choice conditions, respectively, and mean number of eggs of 0.57 ± 0.11 and 0.08 ± 0.04 per cm² for the no-choice and choice conditions, respectively. However, L. esculentum was least suitable for development of L. huidobrensis, with the lowest number of pupae and adults (2.50 ± 0.73 and 1.38 ± 0.46, respectively), pupal survival rate of 6.05 ± 1.95 % and fitness as measured by female and male wing length of 1.84 ± 0.04 mm and 1.57 ± 0.03 mm, respectively. This makes it the best candidate trap crop for management of this pest. On the other hand, V. faba was the most suitable host plant for development of the pest (42.88 ± 11.80 pupae and 32.13 ± 8.77 adults), pupal survival (65.01 ± 13.86 %) and fitness (2.18 ± 0.03 mm and 1.77 ± 0.04 mm, making it a suitable host for mass rearing of L. huidobrensis. Previous experience (rearing history) of the pest significantly affected the selection for feeding and oviposition, but did not affect host suitability for development. Liriomyza huidobrensis fed and oviposited significantly more under no-choice condition than choice set-up suggesting the potential of mixed cropping in controlling L. huidobrensis infestations.

A total of 655 individuals of 110 passerine species belonging to 28 families were examined for chewing lice in South Africa. A total of 80 (12 %) birds of 33 species were parasitized with amblyceran chewing lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera) belonging to three genera: Menacanthus, Myrsidea and Ricinus. In this paper we report the occurrence of 11 species of chewing lice identified from 38 birds of 16 species. Three samples of chewing lice containing only nymphs were identified to the generic level only. Description and illustrations are given for Myrsidea oatleyi Sychra & Halajian, sp. n. ex Pogonocichla stellata (Vieillot, 1818) (Muscicapidae). Our data represent the first louse records for Lanius collaris Linnaeus, 1766 (Laniidae), Cossypha dichroa (Gmelin, 1789) and Pogonocichla stellata (Muscicapidae), and Andropadus importunus (Vieillot, 1818) and Chlorocichla flaviventris (A. Smith, 1834) (Pycnonotidae). Records of new host—louse associations are: Cecropis abyssinica (Guérin-Meneville, 1843) (Hirundinidae) for Myrsidea rustica (Giebel, 1874); Cossypha dichroa (Muscicapidae) for Ricinus mugimaki (Uchida, 1915); Lanius collaris (Laniidae) for Menacanthus camelinus (Nitzsch [in Giebel], 1874); Ploceus intermedius Rüppell, 1845 (Ploceidae) for Myrsidea textoris Klockenhoff, 1984; and Prinia flavicans (Vieillot, 1820) (Cisticolidae) for Menacanthus curuccae (Schrank, 1776). A portion of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene for some species of chewing lice was sequenced in order to assess their genetic divergences.

This study was conducted from January to December 2010 to evaluate the anopheline diversity and transmission of malaria in Ayos, a degraded forest area in the south of Cameroon, targeted for the distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). Mosquito larvae were collected by the dipping method and endophilic female adult mosquitoes were captured on volunteers. Molecular techniques were used alongside morphological techniques for mosquito identification; ELISA was used for the detection of plasmodium circumsporozoite antigens. Ten mosquito species, including four Anopheles species (Anopheles gambiae s.s., An. funestus s.s., An. moucheti s.s. and An. hancocki), were identified. The mean biting rate of these Anopheles species was 12.7 bites per person per night (b/p/n). An. gambiae s.s. (6.9 b/p/n) appeared to be the most aggressive species. Malaria transmission is mainly ensured by An. gambiae s.s., An. funestus ss. and An. moucheti s.s. Plasmodium falciparum was the only malaria parasite transmitted. The mean entomological inoculation rate (EIR) for these vectors was 0.7 infecting b/p/n. An. gambiae s.s. (65.6 %) is the major vector, with an annual EIR of 167.9 infectious b/p/n/year. The utilization of LLINs alongside other methods would highly contribute to effective malaria control in Ayos.

Pareuchaetes insulata (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae) was released in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, as a biological control agent against Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robinson (Asteraceae) between 2001 and 2009. Although the moth did establish at one out of some 30 release sites, its population level is generally low in the field. Two closely related biological control agents, P. pseudoinsulata Rego Barros and P. aurata aurata (Butler) had previously failed to establish despite several years of releases. Studies of life history traits of P. insulata (males and females) were conducted to determine whether several aspects of its developmental and reproductive biology can explain its poor performance, and to compare the development and reproductive biology of P. insulata with the two other closely related species. At 25 °C, overall mortality of immature stages was generally low (below 12 %). Although the duration of the larval life stage was statistically longer for females, overall they eclosed as adults before the males (i.e. protogyny). Pupal mass, growth rate and total leaf area consumed were higher in females. Mated females laid 74 % of their eggs on the first four nights following eclosion and lived an average of 5.92 ± 0.19 days. The moth also showed good biological attributes such as high fecundity (number of eggs), egg hatchability and female mating success (the number of matings that resulted in fertile eggs). Significant positive correlations were detected between insect performance metrics and leaf consumption and between fecundity and pupal mass. A 23 % greater lifetime reproductive output (387.62 ± 19.50 eggs per female) for P. insulata compared with P. aurata aurata was recorded. We hypothesize that the absence of protandry in P. insulata might have contributed to the low population levels of the moth in the field. The results of this study contribute to our understanding of the life history traits of erebid moths in the subfamily Arctiinae deployed for the biological control of C. odorata.

Lepidopteran stemborers are among the most important field insect pests of cereal crops in sub-Saharan Africa. With the exception of Chilo partellus, all other borer pests are indigenous to Africa and are assumed to have co-evolved with some native grasses and sedges. Understanding the interactions between pest species and their cultivated and native hosts are required to develop sustainable management strategies. In addition to pest species, natural habitats support diverse range of species (non-pests and their associated natural enemies) some of which are unknown to science. Although the stemborer—host plant interactions have been well described for eastern and southern Africa, knowledge regarding distribution and diversity of stem borer species and their host plants in western and Central Africa is limited. Existing knowledge of the stemborer species diversity of these regions indicate a lower specific and generic diversity compared to eastern and southern Africa. There is need to undertake extensive surveys in Central Africa, particularly in southwestern Cameroon, an area considered as principal centre of diversity and endemism in Africa. This paper provides results of the survey undertaken to establish stemborer species diversity and geographical distribution in Cameroon. A total of 32 stemborer species were identified from the 22 plant species found infested. This information is necessary for future studies on the biogeography and evolution of the noctuid stemborers.

Malaria vector control by indoor residual spraying (IRS) in South Africa currently relies on the use of DDT to control pyrethroid-resistant populations of the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus. Pyrethroid resistance in An. funestus in South Africa and Mozambique is primarily based on the over-production of monooxygenase P450 genes. Preliminary evidence suggests that the pyrethroid-resistant phenotype is primarily expressed in adults, raising questions as to how resistance was selected for in the field given that there was no malaria control targeting adults in southern Mozambique when this resistant phenotype was first discovered there. The aim of this study therefore was to select for pyrethroid resistance at the larval or adult stages in southern African An. funestus and then assay the pyrethroid susceptibility of subsequent life stages using samples of progeny from the pyrethroid-resistant selections. There was no significant variation between the lethal permethrin concentrations inducing 50% mortality (LC₅₀s) of larvae from three An. funestus colonies, but highly significant variation in the lethal dosages inducing 50% mortality (LD₅₀S) of adults. It was not possible to enhance adult resistance/tolerance to permethrin by one round of selection at either the larval or adult stages in any of the colonies, although larval tolerance to permethrin can be enhanced by selection at the larval stage. It is concluded that monooxygenase-based pyrethroid resistance in southern African An. funestus is primarily expressed in the adult stage and that this particular resistance haplotype can only be selected by exposing adult mosquitoes to pyrethroids. This has important implications for malaria vector control in southern Africa because it suggests that the pyrethroid resistance in An. funestus populations in South Africa and southern Mozambique was selected for by private pyrethroid use directed against adult mosquitoes.

The blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe invasa Fisher & La Salle (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae: Tetrastichinae) is a global pest in Eucalyptus plantations. Diverse modes of reproduction (thelytokous and sexual reproduction) are one of the advantages for rapid colonization and outbreak of this species. Understanding the reproductive strategies is advantageous for us to explore the invasive mechanisms. Importantly, how to identify both sexes of the species in the field is a crucial issue before we explore their reproductive strategies. In the current study, indexes of rapid identification of both sexes in L. invasa were studied. Results showed that the obvious differences in both sexes were the antenna and body size. Male wasps have three anelli and four funicular segments, but in females there are four and three segments, respectively. The longer male antennae, which are covered with longer and finer hairs than in the female, was also observed. Body, expansus, head, and gaster sizes of female wasps were significantly larger than the males. These results are an important base not only for exploring the reproductive strategies, but also for controlling L. invasa.

High relative humidity is associated with high mortality in insects due to the infection with entomopathogens. However, the mechanism is still not fully understood. In this study, bioassay for Spodoptera exigua nucleopolhedrovirus (SeNPV) and antioxidant enzyme activity, total antioxidant capacity, and hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity were measured in Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) larvae under three relative humidities (RH) conditions (60–70 %, 75–85 %, and 90–100 %). Results showed that humidity significantly affected the toxicity of SeNPV against S. exigua larvae, and the LD₅₀ (lethal dose 50 %) of SeNPV against S. exigua larvae was 1539.8 (60–70 % RH), 1110.4 (75–85 % RH) and 567.6 PIBs/g (90–100 % RH). The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POX) activities of S. exigua larvae were significantly lower in those subjected to high humidity than those in the control humidity group (60–70 % RH). The capacity of total antioxidant and hydroxyl radical scavenging decreased with the increasing of relative humidity. These results suggest that high RH may cause a decrease in the antioxidant system of S. exigua larvae, which may explain high RH is always associated with high mortality in insects due to infection with pathogens.

Phylogenetic relationships among the subgenera Anopheles and Cellia were inferred from the D2 (36 species) and D3 (57 species) fragments of the 28S ribosomal DNA. Phylogenetic trees were reconstructed using parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. The resultant molecular phylogeny matched the classical morphological taxonomy reasonably well, and also resolved some ambiguities in the morphological taxonomy. Although a molecular phylogeny based on the D2 region did not change the traditional morphological character-based arrangement of anopheline taxa, some differences from the traditional arrangement were apparent in a phylogeny based on D3 fragment variation. This could, however, be due to the shorter length of the D3 fragment used in this study. Both the D2 and D3 data support the view that the subgenus Anopheles and the Neomyzomyia series are basal to the subgenus Cellia. The D2 data suggest a sister-group composed of Neocellia (Myzomyia Pyretophorus). The topology of the tree based on D2 variation supports the monophyly of all four series of the subgenus Cellia. In addition, the tree based on D3 variation suggests that the Neomyzomyia series is monophyletic, but additional species are required to support both these hypotheses. This kind of molecular approach, in combination with the existing morphological taxonomy, could help to resolve phylogenetic relationships among the anopheline mosquitoes.