Geophagy, the ingestion of earth varying in particle size from stones to soils rich in clay, is a relatively widespread behaviour across avian taxa. We reviewed its occurrence in birds and its hypothesised adaptive functions in birds. Of the ∼30 avian orders, 23 exhibit geophagy. However, it has only been documented in ∼260 species (∼2% of birds) and therefor is relatively uncommon. Ingestion of stones and other large particles (grit) is recorded in 54 extant families across the avian phylogeny and appears to be ancient in birds and has evolved several times. Clay ingestion is recorded in 14 phylogenetically scattered families and might have evolved repeatedly. Furthermore, at least nine families exhibit both clay and grit ingestion. Six hypothesised functions of avian geophagy involve digestion and nutrition. Ingested grit might provide (1) essential minerals, particularly sodium or calcium, but it appears to primarily (2) improve mechanical digestion of food in the gizzard, where ingested stones and sand particles are known as gastroliths. Consistent with this gastrolith hypothesis, ∼86% of species ingesting grit consume “hard” food: seeds, leaves, insects or other animals. In contrast, ingested clay appears to be for sodium or other nutrient intake and/or protecting birds from ingested plant secondary compounds, by (3) protecting the digestive tract and (4) adsorbing these compounds. Consistent with this, ∼88% of species ingesting clay eat fruit that is often rich in secondary compounds and low in sodium, and clay ingestion is associated with frugivory in a representative sample of genera of which many have been shown to source sodium. The other two hypotheses are buffering gastric pH (5) and acquiring antidiarrheal agents (6), but no documentation of this in birds was found. We suggest additional tests of these hypotheses and additional investigation of these proposed benefits of geophagy in birds.

Excessive accumulation of trace metal in soil represents a growing environmental problem posing severe risks to biota, humans and ecosystems. Concentrations of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn were determined in soil, as well as in representatives of some trophic levels in the terrestrial food webs in two Egyptian agroecosystems; El-Manzala (a rural area located in the northeast of the River Nile Delta) and El-Tebbin (an industrial area located in South Cairo). Representatives of trophic levels included arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, birds and small mammals. Metal concentrations were determined in the leaves of wild plants, bodies of arthropods and livers of vertebrates. Levels of metals in the soil, plants and most animal species were higher in El-Tebbin than El-Manzala. Minimal concentrations of metals were detected more often in plants and in the cattle egret, whereas maximum values were common in the soil, amphibians and a mantid. Accumulation of metals was more frequent in arthropods and other taxa at lower trophic levels of food webs, suggesting that the transfer of metals along the vertebrate food web may be of relatively minor importance. However, of all the metals examined, only Pb was bioaccumulated to any appreciable extent in some of the higher trophic levels. A significant increase in liver mass and relative liver mass of the Norway rat from the polluted site was observed.

The mountains of northern Mozambique have remained poorly studied biologically until recent years with surveys covering a variety of taxonomic groups highlighting their biological and conservation value. Even so, the medium and large mammal fauna remains poorly known and to date no systematic mammal surveys have been published from any of Mozambique's mountains. We present results of a medium and large mammal survey of Serra Jeci's Mt Chitagal, Mt Sanga and the Njesi Plateau in Niassa, northern Mozambique; the first mammal diversity data collected from these isolated mountains. We recorded 27 mammal species, of which six represent range expansions; Sykes's monkey (Cercophitecus mitis), Mozambique dwarf galago (Paragalago granti), Smith's red rock hare (Pronolagus rupestris), lesser cane rat (Thryonomys gregorianus), rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) and African buffalo (Syncerus caffer). We also reviewed and collated records of medium and large mammals from previously published fieldwork on northern Mozambique's mountains, amounting to a total of 34 large mammal species from seven montane areas, highlighting the lack of mammalian knowledge in Mozambique's Afromontane habitats.

The superfamily Plagiorchioidea has a considerable number of genera and species with great uncertainty of their phylogenetic position. The objectives of the current study were to specifically describe the morphology and determine for the first time the phylogenetic position of Glossidium pedatum and Orientocreadium batrachoides. Examination of G. pedatum using conventional light and scanning microscopy techniques revealed undescribed features related to the digestive system, the presence of papillae-like lateral lappets, and terminal lobes covered with backwardly directed spines. Orientocreadium batrachoides revealed a pharynx that is four lobed anteriorly. Both the large (28S) and small (18S) subunits of the ribosomal genome, analysed through Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood, were used to genetically characterise these species. Phylogenies indicate that G. pedatum does not fit well into any known family within the Plagiorchioidea, as currently indicated in various systematic structures based on morphology. However, G. pedatum was closely related to Haematoloechidae according to analyses of 18S and 28S rDNA. Based on 28S rDNA, O. batrachoides formed a well-supported clade with Orientocreadium pseudobagri within the family Orientocreadiidae. In turn, Orientocreadiidae is closely related to Leptophallidae. The current study provides essential information that could be helpful to assign the family for Glossidium in future studies. Characterisation of life-cycle stages may be necessary to fully elucidate the systematic position of G. pedatum.

The bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) is considered a termite specialist. However, studies of its diet have been limited to indirect methods, such as scat and stomach content analyses, resulting in intraspecific dietary variations due in part to methodological differences. Because diet plays a central role in the social dynamics of these canids, we hereby contribute further to our knowledge about their dietary habits. We present 2-year data of direct observations of foraging bouts of 19 habituated bat-eared foxes in the Kalahari Desert of South Africa, as well as data on seasonal variation in invertebrate prey communities obtained through pitfall and sweep net trapping. Despite showing a diet breadth reflective of a specialised forager across all seasons, foxes exhibited substantial seasonal variation in diet breadth with a broader range of food categories utilised in summer compared to the other seasons. Supplementary food categories appear to not have been utilised opportunistically, but it is unclear what drove the preference for some food categories over others. A literature review indicated strong effects of local conditions on the utilisation of supplementary food across southern Africa. Our data support bat-eared foxes as obligate termite specialists but highlight that they appear to have the ability to show dietary flexibility based on both temporal and spatial variations in food abundance.