Ephedrus persicae Froggatt (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) represents a biologically complex parasitoid species group that parasitizes >150 aphid species worldwide, including many pests in different agroecosystems. Evidence from the host range indicated some taxonomic problems within this species-complex. Using classical and geometric morphometric approaches, we assessed the morphological differences among various E. persicae biotypes in the Palaearctic reared from 20 aphid hosts. We found that morphological variability of E. persicae biotypes was influenced by the host. Classical morphometric analysis indicated a conservative position of E. persicae biotypes in the Palaearctic. Our analysis showed that E. persicae biotypes reared from nonleaf-curling Aphis and leaf-curling Dysaphis aphid hosts have significant differences, but all other analyzed E. persicae biotypes have an intermediate position, making it impracticable to split the E. persicae group this way. However, geometric morphometrics used to analyze variation of wing shape showed better predictive ability. The high ratio of correctly assigned individuals based on the wing shape of E. persicae/Aphis viticis Ferrari, E. persicae/Brachycaudus klugkisti (Börner), and E. persicae/Tuberocephalus momonis (Matsumura) biotypes indicates that some host-specific adaptations occurred. The E. persicae/ Hyadaphis foeniculi (Passerini) biotype is clearly separated along the CV2 canonical axis, exhibiting shorter and wider wings. On the basis of this result, we describe a new taxon—Ephedrus lonicerae n. sp.

Three new species of grass-feeding eriophyoid mites (Acari: Prostigmata: Eriophyoidea) are described from Croatia: Acaralox croatiae n. sp., inhabiting purple moorgrass, Molinia coerulea (L.) Moench; Aculodes festucae n. sp., inhabiting tall fescue, Festuca arundinacea Schreb.; and Aculodes sylvatici n. sp., inhabiting false brome, Brachypodium sylvaticum (Huds.) Roem. et Schult. The three new species are first records of eriophyoid mites infesting Poaceae in Croatia. These records increase the current documented number of eriophyoid species in Croatia from 28 to 31.

Two new genera, including three new species assigned to the subfamily Iscopininae Rasnitsyn, 1980 and family Pelecinidae Haliday, 1840—Archaeopelecinus tebbei, gen. et sp. nov., A. jinzhouensis, gen. et sp. nov., and Cathaypelecinus daohugouensis gen. et sp. nov.—are described from the Middle Jurassic Jiulongshan Formation of Eastern Inner Mongolia, China. This article documents the earliest record of fossil pelecinid wasps, extending the pelecinid existence to the Middle Jurassic and suggesting origination of pelecinid in northeastern China. Migration of pelecinid from East Asia to North, Central, and South Americas and evolution of pelecinid morphology (e.g., antennae, wing venation, body size, mouthparts) and dietary requirement also are discussed.

A new species of Trissolcus Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), Trissolcus halyomorphae Yang, sp. nov., is described from China. It is a solitary parasitoid in eggs of Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), an economic pest that causes severe damage to pear, apple and other fruit and that also feeds on the leaves and stems of ornamental and forest trees. The new species is the principal natural enemy of the stink bug, with parasitism rates up to 70% and an average annual rate of 50%. Because of its high parasitism rates and other biological features, it has good potential as a biocontrol agent of the pest. Type specimens are deposited in Insect Museum, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China.

The thibetana species group of Helota MacLeay is revised. Five species are considered to be valid. The following synonyms are proposed: Helota sinensis Olliff, 1883 (=H. tonkinensis Ritsema, 1905a); and H. thibetana Westwood, 1842 (=H. verrucosa Ritsema, 1894; H. donckieri Ritsema, 1907; H. westwoodii Ritsema, 1907). Lectotypes are designated for Helota sinensis Olliff, H. tonkinensis Ritsema, H. donckieri Ritsema, and H. westwoodii Ritsema. A key for the thibetana species group is provided. Figures of the protibia, penis, parameres, internal sac, and eighth abdominal tergite are given for each species. A checklist of the 23 valid species and subspecies of the genus Helota MacLeay is provided.

We studied the differentiation of North American squash bee (Apidae: Apiformes) populations by using geometric wing morphometry to evaluate hypotheses for the origin and possible expansion route of bees after the dispersal of their Cucurbita floral hosts. Two hypotheses consider the possible impact of early human cultures on the distribution of this mutualistic species complex: 1) the geographic range of the bees naturally expanded after the hypsithermal range expansion of the wild buffalo gourd, Cucurbita foetidissima Kunth; or 2) the bees shifted to mesophytic gourds of the C. pepo group at the Mexican Gulf coast and tracked the cultivation and/or trade by early human hunter-gatherer societies in the context of fishing technology along stream valleys to northeastern America. We morphometrically measured 228 specimens of Peponapis pruinosa (Say) collected at 15 sites between Mississippi and Ontario, Canada. Twenty-three landmarks were taken from the right forewings. The resulting measurements were analyzed by multivariate statistics. Our results support the first hypothesis of a western origin of North American squash bee populations and a mainly natural range expansion during the hypsithermal range expansion of the buffalo gourd.

The effect of five constant relative humidity (RH) regimes (12, 33, 55, 75, and 94%) on ovarian maturation, adult longevity, and egg production of Bactrocera (Dacus) oleae (Gmelin) (Diptera: Tephritidae) was studied at 25 ± 1°C and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h under laboratory conditions. The experimental insects developed in the preimaginal stages at 16:8 (L:D) h and 25 ± 1°C, and the adults were maintained in plastic cages in sealed plastic containers with saturated water salt solutions in their base to control RH. In the experiments concerning longevity and egg production, the adults were maintained individually, whereas in those concerning ovarian maturation they were in groups of 10 females and 10 males. Ovarian maturation was much reduced and the number of mature oocytes in the ovaries was very low in 7-d-old females maintained at 12 and 33% RH. By contrast, a high percentage of females of that age maintained at 55, 75, and 94% RHs had mature oocytes in their ovaries. Longevity of adult females, egg production and egg hatch were low at 12% RH. They were significantly higher at 33% RH, and even more so at 55 and 75% RHs but declined at 94% RH. These results could be useful for the mass rearing of B. oleae and for better understanding its population dynamics under field conditions.

Larvae of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), exhibit a body-color polymorphism that is most distinct in the final instar. Larval coloration was investigated in relation to the effects of host plant diet. Larval coloration was strongly influenced by the plant parts on which larvae fed; larvae that fed on leaves exhibited a higher frequency of green coloration than larvae that fed on flowers and fruit. This pattern also was exhibited in full sibling larvae that had uniform genetic background. Larval performance in terms of survival, developmental period, and pupal weight was better in larvae reared on fruit than in those reared on leaves. Our results suggest that larval coloration was determined primarily by the portion of the plant upon which larvae were reared. Larvae also had a certain degree of plastic response to the diet change, which indicates larvae can adjust body color as they change the part of the host plant where they feed. Although the adaptive consequence of similar body color to plant part is still unknown, diet-induced body-color polymorphism in H. armigera might have some role in helping larvae avoid visual predation.

We investigated the fate of ingested Enterobacter (Pantoea) agglomerans and Klebsiella pneumoniae within adult Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), in a mass rearing facility. This examination revealed the establishment of both bacterial strains as biofilms within the adult intestines, on the apical end of developing and developed eggs, and throughout all subsequent life stages. The bacteria were detected in adults through two generations. Irradiation treatment for the sterile insect technique did not disrupt the vertical transmission of E. (P.) agglomerans or K. pneumoniae. This is the first demonstration of maternal spread of Enterobacter/ Pantoea spp. and Klebsiella spp. through populations of C. capitata. A mixed pattern of vertical and horizontal transmission of symbionts associated with tephritids may be one explanation for the difficulty in defining the symbiotic associations of tephritids.

The life cycle, morphology, and potential of Diomus terminatus Say (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to control the sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari (Zehntner) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), were examined in the laboratory. The morphologies of first and fourth instars are described and illustrated, with emphasis on characters of first instar that differ from those of later instars. Dramatic differences exist in the relative size and abundance of specialized setae between early and late instars. Field-collected late instars of D. terminatus were successfully reared to adult stage at 26°C by using M. sacchari feeding on small pieces of sugarcane {Saccharum, spp.) leaves. The eggs laid on the sugarcane leaves hatched in 4.5 ± 0.1 d. Larval and pupal stages lasted an average of 6.8 ± 0.6 and 4.9 ± 0.2 d, respectively. D. terminatus required 12.1 ± 0.6 d from egg hatch to adult emergence. The adult longevity test with single adults in petri dishes revealed that D. terminatus remained alive for 26 ± 1.9 d when feeding on aphids of mixed ages. The larvae consumed a total of 30 ± 1.8 aphid nymphs, with a daily consumption rate of 4.7 ± 0.4. The adult voracity test showed that D. terminatus could consume as many as 19 ± 0.9 aphids per d. These results are discussed with respect to their implications for aphid control in Louisiana sugarcane.

This study presents basic information on the life cycle, seasonal phenology, and parasitism of the endemic Hawaiian moth Udea stellata (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), a species for which little biological information is available, even though it was described more than a century ago. By observation of ecdysis and measurements of corresponding head capsule widths under laboratory conditions, we determined that U. stellata undergoes six larval stages. All larval stages had distinct ranges in head capsule width. Duration of each larval stage as well as the egg and pupal stage are reported. Endemic host plants of U. stellata, Pipturus spp. (Urticacea), were sampled at eight field sites between July 2004 and July 2006. Temporal differences in density of larvae were most pronounced in medium- and high-elevation sites, possibly an effect of more marked seasonal temperature changes. The parasitoid assemblage associated with U. stellata consisted of seven species: three adventive species, two purposely introduced species, and two of unknown origin. Adventive parasitoids rather than purposely introduced parasitoids were responsible for the greater part of the apparent mortality observed.

The external morphology and development of the immature stages of Brachyufens osborni (Dozier) (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), a Nearctic solitary endoparasitoid of the eggs of Pachnaeus spp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), are reported. Under our laboratory conditions (25°C and a photoperiod of 12:12 [L:D] h), B. osborni reared in eggs of Pachnaeus litus (Germar) (Entiminae) had a developmental time of 14.7 d. Egg hatching occurred within 15 h from oviposition and mandible measurements indicated the existence of two instars. First instars were mymariform, whereas second instars were sacciform. Pupation occurred 5–6 d after egg hatching and adults emerged 8 d later. On completion of the preimaginal development, the meconium was expelled and emergence took place by biting a hole in the chorion of the host egg. Both sexes emerged at the same time, and the sex ratio was female biased (3:1).

Brontocoris tabidus (Signoret) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) is an obligate zoophytophagous predator because its population can be maintained in the laboratory when fed on both prey and plants. We evaluated ultrastructural changes in the midgut digestive cells of adult B. tabidus, subjected to different treatments (starvation or feeding on plant material and prey) for different periods. Their midguts were dissected, divided into anterior, medium and posterior sections, processed, and analyzed with light and transmission electron microscopy. The anterior region of the midgut of B. tabidus, starved or fed on eucalyptus leaves, contained no glycogen. B. tabidus fed on plant material showed multivesicular bodies in this region, and spherocrystals after 6 h of feeding on prey. The microvilli of the medium midgut were longer than those of the anterior and posterior midgut. The posterior midgut differed from the other two regions by an abundance of mitochondria, rough endoplasmatic reticulum and double membrane vesicles in the apical region, 6 h after feeding. The ultrastructural features of the digestive cells in the anterior, medium and posterior regions of the midgut suggest that they play a role in digestive enzyme synthesis, ion and nutrient absorption, and storage and excretion of substances.

The early stages of nymphal development of Ephoron leukon Williamson (Ephemeroptera: Polymitarcyidae) are described with special attention paid to the appearance and differentiation of the mouthparts and abdominal gills. Dramatic changes in the mouthparts of E. leukon include outgrowth of the mandibular tusks from the mandible proper, differentiation of the galealacinia and palps of the maxillae, and splitting of the labium into multiple lobes plus the adornment of various regions of the mouthparts with dense brushes of setae functioning in filter feeding. The abdominal gills of E. leukon originate as short threads, and then they progressively elongate and develop a fringe of long thin extensions around their margins, branch basally to form two separate lamellae and ultimately acquire a suite of structural adornments. In E. leukon, nymphs develop mature mouthparts and abdominal gills during early nymphal ontogeny, a developmental pattern that may facilitate key habitat transitions.

Plebeia emerina (Friese) (Hymenoptera: Meliponini), like other stingless bees, collect large amounts of vegetal resin and store these materials, called propolis, in individualized clusters inside the nest that remain in a viscous state. The development of intramandibular and head salivary glands in P. emerina workers was studied in different life stages, aiming to relate gland functionality with the age in which they work at propolis maceration, biting the propolis clusters with the mandibles. The morphology of intramandibular and head salivary glands from newly emerged, 20–30 d old, and forager bees was analyzed. The greatest size of the head salivary glands occurred in 20–30-d-old worker bees, and the ultrastructure of this gland showed the presence of rough endoplasmic reticulum and lipid droplets. The intramandibular glands were of two types: glandular units (class 3 glands), present throughout the worker bee life span, and the secretory epithelium (class 1 glands), which hypertrophies in 20–30-d-old and forager bees. The development of the head salivary glands and the mandibular epithelium suggest that their products are added to the propolis clusters, supporting the hypothesis that they may serve in maintaining its viscous state.

Aedes albopictus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae), the Asian tiger mosquito indigenous to Asia, now an invasive species worldwide, is an important vector for several arboviruses. Genetic analysis using the mitochondrial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5) gene was carried out in populations from Cameroon (n = 50), Hawaii (n = 38), Italy (n = 20), the continental United States, Brazil, and its native range. Data for Brazil, the continental United States, and the native range was obtained from Birungi and Munstermann (2002). Direct sequencing was used to identity unique haplotypes. The limited phylogeographic partitioning of haplotypes with low levels of sequence divergence in both Cameroon and Hawaii was consistent with the population structure of Ae. albopictus in the United States and Brazil. Four new haplotypes were identified from the samples from Cameroon and Hawaii, adding to previously described haplotypes. Hawaii shared a haplotype with Cameroon that was unique to these two regions. Hawaii also had higher overall haplotype diversity than seen in previous continental United States, Brazil, or native range populations. Hawaiian, Cameroon, and Italian populations did not share haplotypes with Brazil, which validates the earlier mitochondrial DNA studies indicating a separate introduction of this species into Brazil.

Frequent use of the microbial insecticide, Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki (Berliner) (Bt), in commercial vegetable greenhouses has led to the evolution of resistance in cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), populations. Spatial patterns of Bt resistance suggest that resistant moths disperse from greenhouses selected with Bt to neighboring untreated greenhouses. To quantify dispersal patterns in greenhouse and field populations, molecular markers are desired. We developed a DNA isolation procedure and evaluated the utility of the molecular fingerprinting technique, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), to analyze the possible population structure of T. ni by using laboratory-reared populations. We also assessed the ability of AFLP markers to distinguish between laboratory and wild T. ni populations collected from a greenhouse and field in the Fraser Valley of British Columbia, Canada. Due to the complexity of the T. ni genome, primer combinations of E 3 and M 4 were required to unambiguously score polymorphic loci. Three of the primer combinations that were examined produced >65 polymorphic bands in laboratory-reared populations, and >90 bands in greenhouse- and field-collected populations. Levels of heterozygosity were higher in wild populations compared with those reared in the laboratory, and AFLP markers reliably distinguished between laboratory and wild populations.

Subterranean termites excavate extensive tunnel complexes in search of resources. The high energetic cost of digging through soil places stringent requirements on the efficiency of tunnel patterns for both search and transport at the time of their initial construction. An efficient spread of tunnels could result from simple diffusion away from a shared origin, but the ability to actively orient the burgeoning tunnels allows for the construction of efficient patterns when faced with the possibility of detours or directional drift. In this study, termite excavators were made to dig through one or two 90° forced turns of varying length that displaced them laterally and changed their heading. When allowed to tunnel freely again, they invariably corrected for the displacement by moving along a vector away from a point of tunnel origination, termed the global away vector (GAV), that was the opposite of a homing vector. Through the elimination of reliable allothetic cues, idiothetic dead reckoning was shown to be sufficient to orient tunnel headings. Excavation in termites was not coordinated solely by stigmergy, because tunnelers did not rely on local cues alone while digging, but the removal of soil from sites at the tunnel tip was governed by their ability to generate a GAV through dead reckoning.

The parasitoid Prorops nasuta Waterston (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) is a wasp of the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). In this study, the attractiveness of different volatiles to P. nasuta was studied in the laboratory using a Y-tube olfactometer. Female wasps were attracted to coffee berry borer-infested coffee berries but not to uninfested or artificially damaged berries. Full-grown larvae and pupae, and dust/frass of H. hampei isolated from infested berries, were attractive to parasitoid females, whereas immature coffee berry borer and dust/frass originating from coffee berry borer reared on an artificial diet were not. Adult coffee berry borer, derived from both infested berries or artificial diet, were not attractive to parasitoids. Females of P. nasuta did not show a preference for volatiles released from unparasitized versus parasitized hosts independent of the time since parasitization. Wasp attraction was influenced by the amount and age of dust/frass but not by the density of immature larvae. These findings show that host searching behavior of P. nasuta is mediated by chemical cues emitted from the coffee berry-H. hampei complex.

The development of parasitoid wasps is dependent on the finite resources contained in a single item of resource (=host) that is frequently not much larger than the adult parasitoid. When the costs of egg production are high, and host distribution is highly aggregated, parasitoid females may spend prolonged periods guarding their eggs and host resources as an adaptive strategy to optimize their inclusive fitness. Here, we examine aggressive interactions between the females of the secondary hyperparasitoid Trichomalopsis apanteloctena (Crawford) (Hymenoptera: Chelonidae), for control of cocoon clusters of their primary parasitoid host Cotesia kariyai (Watanabe) (Hymenoptera: Braeonidae). Generally, larger female hyperparasitoids were more successful at defending cocoon clusters than smaller female hyperparasitoids. However, when first encountering host cocoons, larger females behaved more aggressively toward conspecific wasps than smaller females. After occupation of a host cocoon cluster, females of similar size rarely engaged in physical combat, but both females primarily exhibited threatening behavior toward each other. However, larger females usually displaced smaller females which had initially occupied cocoon clusters. Some small females chewed through the outer cocoon silk layer to avoid being displaced by larger females and these wasps were able to continue parasitizing cocoons of C. kariyai. Extended bouts of aggression tended to reduce the number of eggs laid by the guarding female because of disruption of oviposition behavior. The relationship between the size of host cocoons and body mass in T. apanteloctena was also examined. The size of hyperparasitoid progeny was strongly correlated with host size. However, the relationship between maternal size, the number of matured eggs in her ovarioles and body mass in her offspring was not significant.

Successful host shifts by herbivorous insects may require the modification of multiple larval and adult traits. The seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) rarely attacks lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus), which is distantly related to its typical hosts. In a previous study, larval survival in lentil seeds increased from <2 to >85% in fewer than 20 generations of laboratory selection. However, lentil is also a poor oviposition host; lifetime fecundity on lentil was initially less than a third of that on the ancestral host [ mung bean, Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek ] and one fourth of females did not even recognize lentil as a potential host. This study examined the genetic lability of host acceptance. We performed both quasi-natural selection, in which replicate lines switched to lentil were compared with those remaining on mung bean, and artificial selection, in which lines were established using females from the base population that exhibited especially low or high acceptance of lentil during a short-term assay. After only five to eight generations of quasi-natural selection, lifetime fecundity on lentil was 2 to 3 times higher in the lentil lines than in the mung bean lines. Lentil-line females also accepted the novel host sooner after adult emergence. Similarly, a single generation of artificial selection was sufficient to increase oviposition on lentil in the acceptance line. Host acceptance was not genetically correlated with larval survival, which remained <2% in lines artificially selected for either high or low acceptance of lentil seeds. Although modification of oviposition behavior in this study was not nearly as striking as the increase in larval survival reported previously, the C. maculatus population possessed enough standing genetic variation in both larval physiology and adult behavior to permit rapid adaptation to a very poor host.