The subfamily Aleocharinae Fleming is one of the largest and most diverse lineages of staphylinid beetles (≈12,000 species). Being one of the most taxonomically difficult groups of beetles, the classification of the 52 tribes in this subfamily is artificial and almost void of any phylogenetic context. As a preliminary step toward building a tribal-level phylogeny for this lineage of beetles, a molecular investigation of partial sequences of 12s and 16s mitochondrial genes was undertaken for 21 species in eight different tribes. These sequences were analyzed using parsimony, bayesian, and maximum likelihood methods. Results largely support the findings of previous morphological analyses. The “higher” Aleocharinae form a monophyletic group. The tribe Myllaenini Ganglbauer is supported as a member of the higher Aleocharinae. The subtribe Gyrophaenina Kraatz is monophyletic. These results suggest that 12s and 16s mitochondrial genes are phylogenetically informative molecular characters for building a tribal-level phylogeny of the Aleocharinae.

We investigated the oviposition behavior of Creontiades signatus Distant (Hemiptera: Miridae), a relatively new plant bug pest of south Texas cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L, on okra-leaf and normal-leaf genotypes that differed significantly in their leaf morphology and trichome densities. In a no-choice study, the site preference and numbers of eggs oviposited by C. signatus were identical for the okra-leaf and normal-leaf. In a free-choice test, C. signatus showed a significant preference for the normal-leaf by ovipositing 3 times the number of eggs than on okra-leaf, but the site locations and percentages of egg distributions were similar for the two cotton types. The leaf petiole was the most preferred site for oviposition, followed by the main stem, and fruiting structures (squares and small bolls). The majority of eggs were oviposited in the leaf petioles associated with the mid-portion (nodes 4–8) of the plant. Trichome densities on the leaf petioles, main stem, and leaf veins were similar for node 3, but they were significantly higher on these structures for nodes 5 and 8 for the okra-leaf compared with the normal-leaf. The strong selection of oviposition sites in the normal-leaf cotton in this study may be due to some factor other than trichome density. This information should increase the knowledge for scouting for the presence of eggs and young nymphs and serve as a starting point for the selection of nonpreferred cotton varieties for oviposition by this mirid.

Aggressive interactions often occur between individuals of various insect species attracted to fermented tree sap. We explored interspecific behavioral dominance hierarchies and factors responsible for such interactions occurring in sap-exuding patches on trees. We observed fighting behavior, departures from patches, and attempted entries into patches (individual approached and then left a patch without feeding) in four hornet species (Vespidae), four butterfly species (Nymphalidae), and one beetle species (Scarabaeidae). Our examination of these interactions indicated that the hornet species, Vespa mandarinia Smith, was the most dominant and that butterfly species were competitively inferior. Both Vespa ducalis Smith and Rhomborrhina japonica Hope were less dominant than Vespa crabro L. and Vespa analis F. in departures and attempted entries into patches, but neutral when it came to fighting behaviors. For most hornet and butterfly species, approach and threat behaviors were mainly responsible for departures and attempted entries, respectively, indicating that individuals of these species avoid fights by recognizing the behaviors of other individuals. These results suggest that competitor-avoidance behaviors play an important role in foraging success at sap sites, highlighting the importance of examining these behaviors as well as aggressions before determining dominance hierarchies. Competitor-avoidance behaviors of subordinate species might enable them to forage in patches and potentially affect the co-occurrence of sap-attracted insects.

Numerous color morphs of the southern twostriped walkingstick (or “devil rider”), Anisomorpha buprestoides (Stoll, 1813) (Phasmatodea: Areolatae: Pseudophasmatidae: Pseudophasmatinae: Anisomorphini), predominantly from Florida, are described and illustrated. Three main color forms of A. buprestoides are recognized: white, orange and brown. Type specimens of A. buprestoides have been lost, but colored illustrations by its original describer are compared with the most similar color form described here. This is intended to support future selection of a neotype, which will become necessary for conducting any confirmed taxonomic studies. The common brown form is highly variable in size and coloration and exhibits a wide distribution, mainly throughout the more northern portions of the dispersal of A. buprestoides. The white and orange forms are restricted to rather small localities in central Florida and show affiliation with dryer habitats. The distribution of A. buprestoides, based on collecting records from various museum collections, extends as far south as Key West, FL, but the northern boundary of its range is unclear. The day-hiding, defensive, and oviposition behaviors are described and illustrated for the three recognized color forms and are shown to differ considerably with dependence on the respective habitat. A list of known host plants and alternative food plants used in captive breeding of A. buprestoides is provided, which proves this species to be rather polyphagous. Captive breeding on alternative food plants for three generations has shown the coloration to remain constant independent of food plant used. Our observations lead us to the conclusion that A. buprestoides is in every aspect capable of adaptation to ecological pressure.

Age-specific life table parameters and survivorship, adult longevity, reproduction periods, fertility, and sex ratio of the codling moth were studied at eight constant temperatures (10, 14, 20, 25, 27, 30, 33, and 35 ±0.5°C). Among the examined temperatures, the highest values of net reproductive rate, intrinsic rate of increase, and finite rate of increase were 18.28 (females/female), 0.08 (females/female/d), and 1.08 at 27°C, respectively. Similarly, the highest value of sex ratio was 0.56 [females/ (females males)] at 27°C. The highest mean generation time and doubling time were 72.26 and 23.09 d, respectively, at 20°C. To present a suitable model for intrinsic rate of increase at different temperatures, a nonlinear Lactin model was fitted to our observations. The longest preoviposition period was 2.77 and 2.55 d at 20 and 30°C, respectively. Also, the longest oviposition period was 8.46 d at 20°C. Postoviposition period was not statistically different at examined temperatures. The Weibull frequency distribution was used to describe the age-specific survival of the female adults. Based on the Weibull distribution parameters, the survival curves were type I at all examined temperatures, which indicates that mortality mostly occurred in old individuals. These findings confirmed that temperature is a critical environmental factor affecting codling moth population growth.

The structure of the egg and embryonic developmental stages of glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis (Germar) (Hemiptera Cicadellidae), an important vector of Xyhlla fastidiosa are described and illustrated. This sharpshooter has narrow, flattened elliptical eggs with the anterior end less broad and more pointed than the posterior end. The anterior portion of the egg contains a keel-shaped structure with a ridge that stretches backward for a short distance and then transforms into a groove stretching longitudinally along the ventral surface of the egg. The eggshell apparently has two layers: an outer shell layer that peels off easily when handling the egg, and an inner layer that appears intact, tightly surrounding the yolk and other liquid contents of the egg. There were six discernible stages of embryonic development (195 h at 25°C): an initial undifferentiated stage at 0–90 h, appearance of the head cap at 90–100 h, eye spot migration at 100–130 h, active physiological stage at 130–180 h, a head cap ballooning stage at 180–190 h, and emergence of the first-instar nymph at 185–195 h. It was found that the general structure of the egg and embryonic developmental stages are similar to that of other cicadellids. However, the present work breaks down the embryonic development of leafhopper] eggs into more stages than previously described. The timing of H. vitripennis embryonic developmental stages could be used to improve the design of host-age effect experiments aimed at developing more efficient rearing methods for egg parasitoids to be released for control of H. vitripennis.

Morphometric and developmental aspects of the egg stage of glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis (Germar), and Homalodisca liturata Ball were investigated. Considerable overlap exists between the two species with respect to egg length, width, and clutch size, making these variables unreliable in identifying their eggs to species. Embryonic development of the two species was observed at constant temperatures ranging from 8.7 to 40.4°C. No signs of development were observed at 8.7°C, development was aborted early in development at 11.5°C, and egg masses were desiccated at 40.4°C. For both species, rates of embryonic development increased linearly with increasing temperatures from 16.7 to 25.6°C, peaked at 31.2°C, and decreased between 32.9 and 35.0°C. Based on linear regression, the minimum thresholds for embryonic development were 12.0 and 12.6°C, and heat unit requirements were 111.4 and 104.5 degree-days for H. vitripennis and H. liturata, respectively. We quantified four physiological states of embryonic development, based on eye spots being normally developed, centrally developed, reversed, or undeveloped. The prevalence of these states did not differ significantly between the two species and comparing data from the laboratory versus the field. However, higher experimental temperatures tended to increase the prevalence of abnormally developed eye spots. Nonparasitic mortality of Homalodisca eggs in five field host plants was attributed to undeveloped-abnormally developed embryos and to the inability of first-instar nymphs to emerge from eggs. These causes of mortality varied among host plants. Eggs on mule fat tended to have a higher proportion of undeveloped-abnormally developed eggs, whereas on jojoba, Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider, a higher prevalence of dead but fully developed embryos was observed inside eggs.

The Odonata fauna of the Grand Canyon ecoregion (GCE) on the southern Colorado Plateau includes 89 species (35 genera, seven families), including 49 Anisoptera species (25 genera, four families) and 40 Zygoptera species (10 genera, three families), and with 58 Odonata species in Grand Canyon (GC; 24 genera, seven families). Three biogeographic hypotheses account for this relatively high regional species richness: faunal affinity (origin), elevation effects on range, and landform impacts across spatial scale. The GCE Odonata assemblage is the result of mixing of taxa from adjacent Neotropical and Nearctic regions. Allochthonous taxa include 34.8% tropical (Mexican, Caribbean, Neotropical, or Pantropical) and 21.3% boreal (Nearctic or Holarctic) species. Autochthonous species (43.8%) are range-centered in North American, neither clearly Nearctic nor Neotropical, with a strong Pacific Coast influence. Area-adjusted species richness is negatively linearly related to elevation. Tropical species have lower elevation ranges than do boreal species, whereas the elevation ranges of both allochthonous groups overlap those of autochthonous species. Odonata generally overcome landform-based range constraints at coarse spatial scales, but barrier/filter and corridor effects predominate over refuge and null biogeographic effects in GC. Anisoptera and Zygoptera biogeographic patterns are similar, except that 9-fold more Zygoptera species exist in refugia in GC compared with Anisoptera. Although no GCE Odonata previously have been considered rare or at risk, 15 (16.9%) species are restricted to three or fewer localities, four (4.5%) of species have been detected at only a single locality, and four high-elevation Nearctic species may be at risk of extirpation though climate change impacts on their habitats.

Highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) is a native North American crop dependent upon pollen movement by bees for high fruit set and large berries. Commercial blueberry farms use honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) to provide pollination services, but there is concern regarding their long-term sustainability as crop pollinators. We conducted a 3-yr study at 15 farms to identify the bee community associated with the blueberry agroecosystem in Michigan to improve our understanding of this community and to better target conservation practices. Pan trapping and direct observation were used to determine the relative abundance and diversity of wild bees before, during, and after bloom. We found at least 166 species, representing 30 genera and five families, 112 of which were active during bloom. Most bees captured were solitary, soil-nesting bees. Most species were from subfamily Halictinae (family Halictidae) and genus Andrena (family Andrenidae). Andrena Carolina Viereck, a specialist on Ericaceae, was the most abundant native bee species collected during blueberry bloom. Several native Osmia species that were present in low abundance during bloom are potential targets for management. Honey bees were more often captured in white than in yellow traps, regardless of trap position in the field. Wild bees were more often captured in field perimeters than interiors, but they did not respond differentially to trap color. We report seven new state records for Michigan, including significant range extensions, and three new floral record associations. Implications for the conservation of native bees in this agricultural system are discussed.

We investigated egg-to-adult developmental time, adult longevity, adult body size, and wing and antenna length of Pimpla turionellae (L.) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) reared on Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) last instars that were fed various doses of cypermethrin in diet. The impacts of cypermethrin on larval behavior, pupal weight, and last instar-to-adult developmental time of host species also were examined. Percentage of pupation at doses >20 ppm and pupal weight of G. mellonella decreased, whereas last instar-to-adult developmental time prolonged gradually with increasing doses of cypermethrin. Cypermethrin treatment increased the intensity of abnormal behavior and the number of host larvae on diet at 1, 2, 4, 6, and 24 h posttreatments at doses >50 ppm. The differences in egg to adult developmental time, adult body size, wing, and antenna length of P. turionellae were not significant. However, cypermethrin exposure significantly affected the adult longevity of female wasps. Mean longevity of cypermethrin-treated females increased significantly at all doses of insecticide tested with respect to controls except for 100 ppm. This work suggests that parasitoid species as well as its host are susceptible to cypermethrin in terms of remarkable adverse effects on biological characteristics possibly due to metabolic, hormonal, and nutritional deficiencies.

Estrogen receptor-related receptors (ERRs) belong to a subfamily of orphan nuclear receptors where the proteins are closely related to the estrogen receptors (ERs) in structure. ERR homologs have been found in many animals and play an important role in the regulation physiologic processes. We have isolated the ERR homolog, abbreviated as PvERR, from the ant Polyrhachis vicina Roger (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). The full-length cDNA of the PvERR gene is 1,918 bp, containing a 5′-untranslated region (5′-UTR) of 245 bp and a 3′-UTR of 368 bp. The open reading frame of 1,305 bp encodes a 434-amino acid protein. The PvERR gene is composed of eight exons and seven introns. The tertiary structure of both the DNA binding domain and the ligand binding domain (LBD) of PvERR belong to the α β type. The LBD of PvERR is formed by 11 α-helices without H2, and it is similar to the mammalian ERRγ LBD of known crystal structure. Further investigation indicated the potential significance of PvERR in the regulation of development in P. vicina, due to its expression in different developmental periods and castes.

The southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), and other related species have become pests in cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., after successful eradication efforts for the boll weevil. In Central Texas, little is known regarding the ecology of N. viridula. The reproductive status of N. viridula adults can be used to estimate population density and overwintering survival, but previous studies failed to provide clear visualizations for the developmental stages of the reproductive systems. This study was undertaken to provide improved visualizations of the developmental stages of the reproductive systems. Results will be critical in the accurate assessment of population reproductive status, estimation of population densities, and overwintering survival. Additionally, images presented here may be applicable to other stink bug species that infest row and fruit crops.

The antennal sensilla of Anastrepha serpentina (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) adults were studied by means of scanning electron microscopy. Both sexes have the same form and number of antennal segments. The scape and the pedicel are covered entirely by microtrichia. In the distal part of both segments, a series of longitudinally striated hairs was observed, originating in a flexible socket and ending in a pointed tip. Six types of sensilla were observed in the funiculus: 1) thick-walled multiporous pitted sensilla subtype I and subtype II, 2) thin-walled multiporous pitted sensilla long subtype I and medium length subtype II, 3) basiconic sensilla, 4) multiporous grooved sensilla, 5) clavate sensilla, and 6) an olfactory pit with two small conical and striated sensilla inside. Furthermore, there is a large quantity of microtrichia surrounding the entire funiculus. In the proximal dorso-lateral region of the funiculus, there are trichoid aristae composed of two short segments and one large segment, which have fixed base bristles or tactile hairs without membranes.

Monochamus galloprovincialis Olivier (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) is the European vector of the pine wilt nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Steiner and Buhrer) Nickle, which causes the pine wilt disease. A series of experiments were carried out to determine the existence of a contact pheromone on the female's cuticle. All males tested tried to copulate with freshly killed females, but none tried to copulate with the same females after they had been washed with hexane. When the hexane extract was reapplied to the extracted females, 50% of the males tried to copulate with them. This shows that females have a contact pheromone on their cuticle that stimulates male copulatory behavior. Cuticular compounds (mainly hydrocarbons) were sampled with solid phase microextraction and solvent extraction. No marked differences between sampling methods were observed. Individual peak analysis revealed that 23 compounds were significantly more abundant in females and eight were more abundant in males. Correspondence analysis found significant differences between the global hydrocarbon profile of male and female M. galloprovincialis. Individually, these compounds represented a small percentage of the total blend. This suggest that males of M. galloprovincialis may distinguish females by a blend of several, not very abundant, compounds that are present in both sexes but in different proportions.

We evaluated the effect of weight, collection site, and age upon mating behaviors of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) with multivariate analysis. Our laboratory study of D. virgifera revealed that female weight was positively associated with the likelihood of mating, although female weight was not associated with females' receptivity to aedeagus insertion. Furthermore, the relationship between male and female weight on mating was investigated at two field locations in Indiana, and evidence of nonrandom mating was found. The implications of these results for pest management are discussed, with particular focus upon using this information for the construction of robust viable resistance management systems in Bacillus thuringiensis corn, Zea mays L.

Serial tunneling behavior of Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), the Formosan subterranean termite, includes excavation, loading, transportation, and deposition of sand particles. Functions of mouthparts, including mandibles, maxillae, labrum, and labium, for the tunneling behaviors were described. The four mouthparts form a buccal cavity for loading three to four sand particles (ranging 0.300–0.355 mm in diameter) during sand displacement. The maxillae, not the mandibles, are the major appendages for sand excavation and deposition. Previous studies speculated a “soil-compaction hypothesis” that subterranean termites might press the sand particles with their head to build the tunnel. Examination of video recordings of tunnel excavation through a microscope indicated sand was not compacted. When two photographs of tunnel tips taken before and after excavation were superimposed, sand particles surrounding tunnel tips remained in place, which demonstrated that termites did not press sand to either side. Observations and experiments indicate that particle displacement is the major mechanism for subterranean termites to build tunnels rather than particle compaction.

Movement behavior immediately before a jump in an experimental arena was investigated for 17 species, representing three central European grasshopper families (Caelifera). It was found that pygmy grasshoppers (Tetrigidae) execute quick forward and backward and occasionally sideways rocking movements, whereas acridids (Acrididae) and catantopids (Catantopidae) execute slow side-to-side movements. All movements are executed without locomotion and are limited to the horizontal plane. Six movement variations were observed for each of the three families; these were the same for the acridids and catantopids. Differences in the frequency of the movement variations and in the velocity and amplitude of the movements indicate species-specific adaptations. Because the movements are translatory and are oriented toward contrast boundaries, they can be regarded as peering motions. In acridids and catantopids, it can be assumed that image displacement is used for the determination of the jump distance. Jumps executed by pygmy grasshoppers were less accurate. Possibly the more irregular rocking movements of these ground-dwelling grasshoppers do not permit such accurate distance estimation as the slower side-to-side movements of the other species, but rather they serve to aid in overall perception of obstacles in the environment, for example. Because pygmy grasshoppers are considered to be more primitive than the other two families, their peering-jump behavior may provide indications concerning the evolution of peering movements. In grasshoppers, it seems that quick rocking movements evolved earlier than slow side-to-side peering movements. It seems plausible that the movements developed from locomotory and compensatory movements preceding jump takeoff.