Based on the original experimental results from stimulating the infrared radiation sensors of Melanophila acuminata (DeGeer) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), it has been concluded that the sensors function at forest fires by protecting beetles from hazardous conditions associated with a flaming environment while swarming, mating, and ovipositing on heated, exposed tree roots. The beetles are renowned for their rapid flight and for their exceptional dispersal capacity resulting in such a wide distribution that they come upon fires randomly. Thus, a case is made here that the infrared radiation sensors of M. acuminata and, presumably, other species in the genus, evolved not for distance perception of fires but for enhanced reproductive activities at them. An examination of the literature has revealed a long-standing interest in distances of perception of forest fires by the sensors, during which time increasingly longer distances have been claimed in various publications. These distances, however, cannot be accepted because there are no calculations supporting them, but just as important is that all of them, ranging up to 100 km in length, far exceed distances obtained by application of the inverse square law of physics where the intensity of radiation of a fire is inversely proportional to distance.

Our goal was to estimate seasonal changes in the proportion of Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), carrying Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus. Our approach was to test Asian citrus psyllid by using pooled samples. The initial question was about pool size and the consequences of choosing poorly. Assuming no loss in sensitivity when diluting one infected individual with many healthy individuals, then it is recommend that a combination of all the published limits be used: keep the number of pools (n) above 20, the pool size (k) below 100, and the number of infected pools less than half the total number of pools. The most conservative approach to achieving the latter is to optimize pool size given an infection rate (p) such that k = ln(0.5)/ln(1 p). Exceeding these limits increases the probability that all the pools will be infected. If this occurs, then that particular sample will be discarded. Use of multiple pool sizes can be used to manage this risk, but this approach may not always be practical. PooledInfRate is a good program for estimating prevalence, and it is available for free from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The program provides corrected confidence intervals for prevalence estimates using one or multiple pool sizes. We used a randomization test approach as a contrasting methodology. The bias corrected CDC 95% confidence interval is an upper bound to the “true” 95% confidence interval, and we provide an estimate of the magnitude of the remaining bias in the estimate.

Plagiotrochus masudai Ide, Wachi & Abe sp. nov. (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), a gall inducer on Quercus (Cyclohalanopsis) glauca Thunberg in Japan, is described. This is the first description of an oak gall wasp species (tribe Cynipini) inducing galls on Cyclohalanopsis. The unique life cycle of P. masudai takes 3 yr to complete. The adult wasps of the sexual generation emerge from bud galls on Q. glauca in spring of the first year, and those of the asexual generation emerge from twig galls in spring of the third year.

Aspidiotus nerii Bouché (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), oleander scale, is a cosmopolitan pest that feeds on >100 families of plants. A previous study of mitochondrial DNA variation in A. nerii suggested a possible Australian origin for the species. Here, we expand upon that study to include four gene regions and multiple Australian samples. We sequenced fragments of three nuclear genes (CAD, elongation factor 1α, and 28S rDNA) and one mitochondrial region (spanning parts of cytochrome oxidase I and II), for a total aligned sequence length of 2448 bp, from 22 individuals identified as A. nerii. We infer an allele genealogy for each gene region, and we interpret branches that are congruent across gene regions as indicative of species boundaries. Using this criterion, we recognize three species within our sample of A. nerii. One of these corresponds to the cosmopolitan pest species and the other two are found only in Australia. The two putative Australian species have overlapping ranges and both are found on multiple hosts. Contrary to previous suggestions, the cosmopolitan sexual and parthenogenetic lineages of A. nerii are not recognized as distinct species by both of our methods of phylogenetic reconstruction. Cryptic diversity within what seem to be single cosmopolitan armored scale insect species is a potential serious problem for plant quarantine.

Allotriosmylus uniramosus n. gen., n. sp. (Osmylidae: Gumillinae) is described from the Jurassic of China. This is the smallest representative of the family and possesses several peculiar features not occurring in other osmylids, such as a structurally well-formed clavus in the hind wing and a single-branched Rs in both the fore- and hind wings.

The Diceroprocta texana species complex is currently composed of Diceroprocta texana texana (Davis, 1916) and Diceroprocta texana lata Davis, 1941. We analyzed physiological, morphological, and biogeography to determine whether these taxa in fact represent two distinct species rather than subspecies. There are statistically significant differences in morphological, acoustic, and thermal parameters as well as the biogeographic patterns of the two taxa. From these data, we suggest that the two taxa actually represent two species and that D. texana lata be elevated to species full species rank with the name Diceroprocta lata Davis, 1941 n. stat. We provide the first records of D. lata collected in the United States.

Three new genera and six new species of fossil elaterids of the tribe Desmatini Dolin, 1975 from second Bed of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation in Huangbanjigou, Liaoning Province, China are described: Paradesmatus dilatatus sp. nov., Desmatinus cognatus gen. et sp. nov., Apoclion clavatus gen. et sp. nov., A. dolini gen. et sp. nov., A. antennatus gen. et sp. nov. and Anoixis complanus, gen. et sp. nov. This tribe demonstrates some characters similar to those in Throscidae and Eucnemidae, elucidating the evolutionary process of the Elateroidea. New materials make clear the distinctness of the genera related to Desmatus Dolin, 1975 (tribe Desmatini) from all other Elateridae. Tetraraphes ebersini Iablokoff-Khnzorian, 1961 could be regarded somewhat nearby the subfamily Protagrypninae; however, this species seems to be similar to some Cenozoic groups rather than any of Mesozoic groups.

Large female pelecinid wasps, elegant and beautiful with uniquely elongated metasoma, are found only in North, Central, and South America. These distinctive wasps are “living fossils” in a relict family of Pelecinidae. Recent discoveries of well preserved pelecinid fossils from the Middle Jurassic (165 Mya) to the Early Cretaceous (125 Mya) of northeastern China, of which Megapelecinus changi gen. et sp. nov. and Megapelecinus nashi, sp. nov. are described herein, provide strong evidence for morphological changes and evolution of pelecinids, such as body size, antennae and wing venation, over the past ≈165 million years. A phylogenetic analysis using 22 morphological characters, 12 extinct pelecinid taxa and one extant pelecinid taxon at the generic level suggests that Megapelecinus gen. nov. is the most basal pelecinid, whereas Cathaypelecinus Shih, Liu et Ren 2009, Archaeopelecinus Shih, Liu et Ren 2009, and Iscopinus Kozlov, 1974 forming a basal clade. Natural selection is demonstrated in pelecinids by the preference of larger female body size offering potentially better ovipositing capability and more efficient forewing venation with an X pattern providing potentially stronger wing structure and better flight performance for large-sized pelecinids. Furthermore, temporal and spatial analyses indicate that the most parsimonious hypothesis is that pelecinid might have originated from Northeastern China, spread to Central and Eastern Asia, and then dispersed to Americas.

Adaptive changes to local conditions are often thought to be required for successful invasions. However, there are also successful invasive asexual species that may have limited potential for evolutionary change. The bird cherry-oat aphid, Bhopalosiphum padi (L.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is thought to have been introduced in Australia 100 yr ago and is now an established pest of cereal crops. Here, we use mitochondrial DNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, and nuclear microsatellites to characterize the genetic diversity in invasive R. padi. Asexual reproduction was detected and clonal diversity was low; with two multilocus genotypes, Rp1 and Rp2, dominating all populations. No geographic or host association was detected between the dominant genotypes on cereals but Rp2 was not found on sweet corn, Zea mays L., crops. The fitness of the predominant multilocus genotypes, Rp1 and Rp2, and an uncommon genotype, Rp26, were investigated on different host types (wheat | Triticum aestivum L. |, barley |Hordeum vulgare L. |, triticale | × Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus. |, and sweet corn | Zea mays L. var. rugosa|) at two temperatures. Rp1 and Rp2 performed similarly on cereals and Rp26 performed poorly on all hosts, patterns that might explain field distributions and abundance of these clones. The results suggest that a high level of clonal diversity is not required for successful invasion and that host associations may develop despite low diversity.

Three species of Brevipalpus mites are known potential vectors of the citrus leprosis virus (family Rhabdoviridae, genus Cyto- and Nucleorhabdovirus, CiLV). Species identification of these mites is difficult because of their small size and morphological similarities. The objective of this study was to develop an accurate and rapid molecular fingerprinting method for identifying B. phoenicis and B. californicus on Texas citrus. Iso-colonies of the two Brevipalpus species were cultured on immature citrus fruit and identified using a dichotomous key. Whole genome amplification was used to produce DNA template from single mites to identify the two species by amplified fragment length polymorphism and sequence-characterized amplified region (SCAR). Population dynamics of Brevipalpus were monitored in four citrus orchards during the 2007 growing season. Subsamples of mites were identified morphologically or by species-specific SCAR markers. Molecular fingerprinting was very efficient in identifying the two species of mites in subsamples, even in cases where the morphological identification did not discriminate between species. Brevipalpus spp. density per fruit was significantly affected by the host plant species, with sweet orange fruit hosting significantly higher density than grapefruit, Citrus x paradisi Macfad. The percentage of fruit infested with Brevipalpus mites varied significantly with time but not with host plant and the host plant by sampling date interaction. Comparison of molecular fingerprinting and morphological identification provided a high percentage of match >85% between the two methods, suggesting that molecular fingerprinting could facilitate studies on population dynamics of Brevipalpus in citrus.

One of the fundamental questions in evolutionary ecology seeks to understand how new biodiversity is created and structured into communities. The apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae), a model for rapid ecological speciation via host plant shifting for phytophagous insects, and its parasitoid community can offer insight into answering this and other related questions. Speciation of Rhagoletis also seems to be driving sequential speciation in a host specific parasitoid wasp Diachasma alloeum (Muesebeck) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). However, biological and geographic information regarding D. alloeum and other parasitoids attacking flies in the genus Rhagoletis is sorely lacking, a problem that complicates the study of their evolution. Here, we present a synthesis of the geographic ranges and extended host associations of Rhagoletis-attacking parasitoids and test whether parasitoids can overlap in host use. In particular, we ask whether 1) wasps that co-occur in sympatry attack different life stages of the fly, 2) locally co-occurring wasps share some fly species in common but not others, 3) wasps differ in local abundance on those fly hosts they share in common, and 4) wasps vary on a regional scale in their geographic distributions. We use both collections and published records to answer the above-mentioned questions. A strong understanding of the Rhagoletis-attacking parasitoid distributions will facilitate future study of sequential radiation in this system.

The sequence of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene was analyzed in 168 individuals from seven Aphis (Hemiptera: Aphidini: Aphidina) species: Aphis gossypii Glover, Aphis glycines Matsumura, Aphis spiraecola Patch, Aphis craccivora Koch, Aphis fabae Scopoli, Aphis rumicis (L.), and Aphis nerii Boyer de Fenscolombe. One other Aphidina species, Toxoptera odinae (van der Goot), and two Macrosiphini species, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) and Myzus persicae (Sulzer), were analyzed as out-groups. The coding region of the gene contains 1,563 bp in all of the species, and 272 sites were variable among the Aphis species. DNA sequence identities among individual aphids ranged from 91.4 to 100%, with greater identities among aphids in the same species (96.5–100%) than between different species (91.4–95.3%). Compared with some other species, A. gossypii showed little divergence in either nucleotide sequences or haplotypes, although intraspecific cytochrome oxidase I (COI) sequence divergence was observed in A. gossypii clones isolated from Commelina communis L. and Rubia cordfolia L. In the phylogenetic tree, every species formed a robust clade. The pairs A. gossypii and A. glycines, and A. rumicis and A. fabae showed robust sister relationships. T. odinae was located within the Aphis species clade, and this suggested that the Toxoptera classification should be reconsidered in the light of molecular data.

Diabrotica barberi Smith & Lawrence, the northern corn rootworm, and Diabrotica longicornis (Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), are currently recognized as closely related chrysomelid species. Hybridization has been proposed to occur between them, although the viability of hybrids has never been tested. The objective of this study was to assess life-history parameters of D. barberi, D. longicornis, and their hybrids under laboratory conditions to examine the potential for field hybridization. D. barberi and D. longicornis were collected in allopatry and were used to create lab colonies. Parental species were crossed to obtain F₁ hybrids, F₂ hybrids, and backcrosses to either parental species. Various life-history traits, which may contribute to overall fitness, were measured, and population growth rates were calculated for all crosses. D. barberi had greater reproductive potential than D. longicornis, but D. longicornis individuals lived longer than D. barberi individuals. In other traits, the two parental species were similar. The fitness of hybrids of a D. longicornis female and D. barberi male, as estimated by reproduction, survival, developmental time, longevity, and head capsule width, was similar to that of the parental species. Hybrids of a D. barberi female and D. longicornis male demonstrated consistently poor egg viability, low survival, and shortened adult life span. The cause of the hybrid unidirectionality is unknown, but these data collectively suggest that hybrids of a D. longicornis female and D. barberi male and F₂ backcrosses with parentals could potentially be as viable as either parental species and contribute to population growth under field conditions.

Some biological characteristics of the ectoparasitoid Dineulophus phtorimaeae (de Santis) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) and field interaction with the endoparasitoid Pseudapanteles dignus (Muesebeck), both larval parasitoids of Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), were examined. In addition, we completed the original description of D. phtorimaeae. Preimaginal developmental time of the ectoparasitoid was 11.17 ± 0.60 d for both sexes, and adult life span was 11.73 ± 0.92 d for females and 8.78 ± 0.93 d for males. The proportion of males to females was equal. In the field, hosts were parasitized at the third larval instar. On average, a female attacked ca. four hosts throughout her lifetime and deposited eggs in ≈50% of cases. The most successful female attacked six hosts, yielding a potential fecundity of ≈10 eggs. Host paralysis without parasitism was observed, suggesting stinging for host feeding. The daily oviposition curve is compatible with a synovigenic-type parasitoid. Our prediction stating that D. phtorimaeae would succeed when competing for hosts with P. dignus was correct, because the former species had greater parasitism rates. In the field, both T. absoluta parasitoids were able to coexist at leaf scale. The negative aspects of differences in feeding behavior, narrower host range (third instar), and lower fecundity of D. phtorimaeae would be compensated by its better attributes as natural enemy, in comparison with P. dignus, enabling coexistence.

The developmental biology of Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) on table grape (Vitis spp.) leaves (‘Soultanina’) was studied at seven constant temperatures—15, 17.5, 20, 25, 30, 32.5, and 35°C—under laboratory conditions. Developmental time and adult longevity were inversely related to temperature. No nymphs hatched from eggs when incubated at 15 and 35°C, whereas no nymphs survived at 32.5°C. The highest egg-to-adult survival (72.09%) was found at 30°C and the lowest (48.80%) at 25°C. The mean total developmental time from egg to adults for females ranged from 39.87 d at 30°C to 112.62 d at 17.5°C. The recorded sex ratio of the offspring was strongly female biased. Adult females lived from 27.64 d at 30°C to 63.70 d at 20°C, whereas males lived 1.66–7.55 d, respectively. Both linear and nonlinear models adequately described the relationship between temperature and developmental rates for immature stages of P. ficus. Thus, P. ficus required 555.56 degree-days to complete development from egg to adult stage, above a minimum threshold of 11.11°C as estimated by linear regression. The temperature thresholds for all nymph instars of P. ficus, estimated by the linear model, were lower than values that were estimated by the non linear model. The predicted upper lethal temperature was 32.5°C, with a minimum threshold for total development occurring at 14.20°C, as estimated by a nonlinear model. These results may lead to better management of P. ficus by improving predictions of its seasonal appearance.

Lymantria monacha (L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) is a Eurasian pest of conifers that has potential for accidental introduction into North America. The phenology over the entire life cycle for L. monacha individuals from the Czech Republic was compared on Picea glauca (Moench) Voss (white spruce) and a newly developed artificial diet. Individuals reared on the artificial diet had lower larval mortality, slightly higher pupal mortality, developed faster, the majority of females went through one less instar, and adults weighed slightly more than those reared on the spruce foliage. Individuals reared on the spruce foliage survived and developed at rates similar to those documented in previous studies on preferred hosts. The host-free rearing methods and artificial diet presented here will allow L. monacha to be mass reared year round to aid in the advance of bioassay-based research aimed at preventing introductions and eradicating this pest if it should become established in parts of the world outside its native range. The phenology documented here suggests that managers can expect the timing of peak second instars for L. monacha to occur later than that for gypsy moths, Lymantria dispar (L.), and the timing of male flight to occur earlier than that of gypsy moth, if both species hatch at the same time and develop under the same environmental conditions.

Biodiversity of tropical forests varies at spatial and temporal scales, but at what scale and how the assemblages differ when we consider the same kind of forest and the same altitude has been poorly documented. We examined the variation in species richness and composition of three subfamilies of scarab beetles (Dynastinae, Rutelinae, and Melolonthinae) along a northwest-southeast (NW-SE) transect of premontane rain forests in Costa Rica. Sampling was carried out at six sampling sites comprising three mountain ranges. Two forest sites were selected in each mountain range at the same altitudinal strip and same life zone. We conducted eight field surveys from June 2007 to January 2008. UV light traps were used to catch the beetles. We studied beetle diversity at three spatiotemporal levels: mountain range, forest site, and monthly trap. Species composition and richness varied at the three levels studied, and this variation was not necessarily related with geographic distance. Forest site and monthly trap levels showed higher variation in similarity indices than the mountain range level did. Additive partitioning of diversity showed values of diversity higher than expected only at the spatial levels with the mountain ranges showing the highest contribution to gamma diversity. Our results show high spatiotemporal variation in scarab beetle assemblages across Costa Rican premontane rain forests and underline that the analysis of a variety of spatiotemporal scales within a single kind of forest is crucial to understand scarab beetle biodiversity patterns in forest ecosystems.

Morphometrics is a relatively powerful analytical tool for the identification of distinct species and subspecies of bees. Typically, within honey bees (Apidae: Apis), morphometric analysis has been used to differentiate the groups and species by using multiple body characteristics. However, these procedures are time-consuming for the suitable preparation of the samples and orientating each part into the correct plane for accurate measurement. Here, we were able to discriminate four honey bee species based on their wing venation pattern information only. Geometric morphometric measurements of the right forewing of drones and workers of Apis andreniformis Smith, Apis cerana F., Apis dorsata F., and Apis florea F. were analyzed. The results demonstrated that the patterns of forewing venation of native Thai honey bees between sexes in the same species were more closely related to each other than to honey bees of the same sex in another species. The wing venation pattern carried sufficient information to discriminate 99% of the individuals, and so the geometric morphometric analysis of the wing alone could be used to identify Asian honey bee species in most circumstances. In addition, the sex of the individual did not obstruct identification. Therefore, morphometric analysis of a single wing might be a useful tool for biodiversity studies of bees and other insects or fossil records. Many insect fossils are only known from a wing, including several fossil honey bees.

A female minute pirate bug, Orius pumilio (Champion), was found to require both food and mating as an adult to achieve egg development. Last-instar nymphs of O. pumilio were individually placed into 96-well microtiter plates and recovered 24–48 h later as virgin adults, fed only on sucrose or water. The procedure yielded low mortalities. Correct identification of the sex of individuals as last-instar nymphs was achieved with 96% accuracy. The availability of food (eggs of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller) and mates for these isolated females was controlled. Unfed adult females, whether mated or not, did not produce defectible yolk protein when assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, nor did they show any follicle development when examined microscopically. Fed but unmated females produced a significant, defectible amount of yolk protein, and some oocyte development was observed, but they contained no fully mature eggs. Females that were both fed and mated fell into two categories: 44% produced mature eggs at a mean rate of 6.4 eggs per female, whereas 56% had ovaries similar to those of fed but unmated females. If treated in mixed sex groups, females that were fed and mated contained more yolk protein than those held in pairs, but increasing the sex ratio of groups above 0.5 (males:females) did not result in a significant increase in yolk protein content. Topical treatment of fed females with methoprene, a juvenile hormone analog, did not trigger an increase in yolk protein contents. We conclude that vitellogenesis is a two-stage process in adult female O. pumilio. Early vitellogenesis requires a nutritious adult diet, whereas full vitellogenesis and egg maturation also require mating.

The crop, or honey stomach, of the honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), is invested in cords of muscles that are numerous enough, in both latitudinal and longitudinal directions, to fully enclose and confine the underlying, cuticle-lined epithelium. Although appressed against the inner wall of this enclosure by the crop's contents, the epithelium is largely free of ligations that would immobilize it. It can therefore slide on the inner wall and undergo extensive pleating as needed to conform to the diameter of the enclosure, regardless of the extent of contraction or distention. The two primary components of the epithelial layer, epidermal cells and procuticle, can undergo extreme compression to maintain pleats while enduring the pressure exerted by the volume of crop contents. During engorgement with nectar, the muscular enclosure relaxes to larger and larger diameters. Correspondingly, pleats unfold as needed. During dispensation of nectar in the hive, the muscular enclosure contracts and forces the epithelium to pleat itself again. Pleats are present in even the most grossly distended crops, indicating that capacity is not a limiting factor in the volume of nectar a bee can accumulate during foraging. Individual pleats are appressed, too, indicating that a lubricating, cohering substance occurs between them.

The morphology, number, and arrangement of sensory scales along wing margins of the imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae (L.) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae), were examined by scanning electron and light microscopy, after applying a microscopic operation to the margins. The sensory scales were much more slender than the noninnervated scales, which completely covered the former. The total number of sensory scales was ≈190 and ≈60 in the forewing and hindwing, respectively, and the patterns of sensory scale arrangement differed between the forewing and hindwing and varied from region to region in each wing margin. Sensory scales were densely distributed along the proximal half of the anterior forewing margin and along a fairly small region of the anterior hindwing margin, immediate to the wing base; they were sparsely distributed or absent along other regions of the wing margin. Sensory scale morphology and arrangement were compared with those of the sensory bristle, another kind of hair-like sensilla, and are discussed in terms of wing movement regulation.

The external morphology of the dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), antennae and their sensilla was investigated using light and scanning electron microscopy. Male and female antennae were clavate before tapering to an apical point and consisted of three main segments; scape, pedicel, and flagellum. Although there was no significant difference in the length of the flagellum between genders, the number of flagellomeres was significantly greater in females than in males and the length and width of individual flagellomeres was significantly greater in males than in females, except near the proximal and distal end of the antennae. The antennal flagellum of both male and female dogwood borer contained seven sensillum types: auricillica, basiconica, chaetica, coeloconica, squamiformia, styloconica, and trichoidea (three subtypes). The mean number of sensilla basiconica did not differ between female and male antennae, but all other sensillum types were significantly more abundant on female antennae. The morphology and purported function of each sensillum type are discussed in relation to the host and oviposition site finding and acceptance behaviors exhibited by dogwood borer.

Genetic and cytogenetic information is an essential basis for understanding the biology of insect pests, as well as for designing modern control strategies. The walnut husk fly, Rhagoletis completa (Cresson) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is an important pest of walnuts (Juglans spp.) in North America and has invaded Europe in the early 1990s. Studies on the genetics and cytogenetics of R. completa are scarce. The mitotic karyotype and detailed photographic maps of the salivary gland polytene chromosomes of this pest species are presented here. The mitotic metaphase complement consists of six pairs of chromosomes, the sex chromosomes being very small and similar in size. The analysis of the salivary gland polytene complement shows a total number of five long chromosomes (10 polytene arms) that correspond to the five autosomes of the mitotic nuclei and a heterochromatic mass corresponding to the sex chromosomes. The banding pattern as well as the most characteristic features and prominent landmarks of each polytene chromosome are presented and discussed.

Techniques for obtaining DNA noninvasively or nonlethally are highly desirable in molecular genetic studies of protected species, and several advances have been made in these types of sampling and extraction techniques. Insects present a unique set of difficulties in this regard that are not present when working with most vertebrates. This study evaluated the effectiveness of several nonlethal sampling techniques for larval and adults of the federally listed endangered dragonfly Somatochlora hineana (Williamson) (Odonata: Corduliidae). Fecal pellets and shed exuviae from captive S. hineana larvae did not provide high enough quality DNA for microsatellite analyses. Invasive, but nonlethal, wing clips from adults and tarsi from larvae provided high-quality DNA that amplified 10 microsatellite markers for this species. Ten loci were polymorphic in 94 specimens with four to 14 alleles per locus. Two populations in WI had average observed heterozygosity of 0.47, which is within the range reported for other odonates. Our sampling techniques and these new microsatellite markers provide an essential tool for determining the genetic structure of S. hineana populations throughout its range.

The butterfly Troides aeacus formosanus (Rothschild) (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) is one of the five T. aeacus subspecies adapted to tropical regions and is endemic to Taiwan. Partial DNA sequences of cytochrome oxidase I (COI) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers were analyzed to differentiate this birdwing butterfly subspecies and to indicate its possible dispersal history. Phylogenetic relationship analyses have shown that T. a. formosanus can be divided into lineages I and II with limited COI variations, and AFLP patterns also have shown two divergent clusters, A and B. In populations collected from southern Taiwan, there was a significant relationship between lineage II and cluster B. Parsimonious network of COI indicated haplotype H₁, the nearest to the other subspecies, should be the basal form in T. a. formosanus. Both COI sequences and AFLP patterns indicated that haplotype diversity was high in all populations, whereas low levels of genetic differentiation were found among populations. Molecular variance suggested that most of the total variance was due to differences within populations. These results, together with the divergence estimation and the specific geological topology in southern Taiwan, indicate that T. a. formosanus might have entered Taiwan during recent glaciations (≈150,000 yr ago) and become adapted to the tropical environment. The observed differentiation of T. a. formosanus could have resulted from the geographic barriers of the Central Range on the island. Moreover, genetic exchanges caused by movement of individuals among butterfly farms or gardens in the past two decades may have led to less diversification among current populations of T. a. formosanus.

Speciation in pollinating seed predators such as fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae) is likely to have been influenced by a combination of ecological and geographical isolating mechanisms, but recent molecular analyses of fig wasps have focused on pollinator specialization as the main factor driving speciation. This study investigates the contribution of geographic modes of speciation such as dispersal, vicariance, and isolation by distance. We sampled haplotypes of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I from Ceratosolen pollinators of six geographically widespread Australasian fig (Moraceae: Ficus) species, including four species spanning Wallacea. Phylogenetic analysis investigated the extent of host conservatism and host switching accompanying divergence in Ceratosolen. Geographically widespread Ceratosolen showed deep intraspecific divergence exceeding or comparable to divergence between named sister species. Maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses supported species monophyly in five of six cases, whereas results for a sixth species were equivocal. Bayesian divergence time estimation suggested dispersal across Wallacea during the Miocene epoch, after the collision of Australian and Asian continental plates. Cryptic species were evident in all six focal taxa. Because the deep mitochondrial divergence within these taxa is regionally distributed, allopatric divergence provides a simple explanation for the existence of these cryptic lineages pollinating widespread fig species. We found little evidence of divergence accompanied by host switching. The ancient origin of cryptic and geographically isolated species suggests that long-distance dispersal may be rare in Ceratosolen and that host associations are generally conserved during range expansion.

In aquatic systems, prey animals associate predation risk with cues that originate either from the predator or from injured conspecifics. Sources and benefits of these cues have received considerable attention in river, lake, and pond ecosystems but are less well understood in small container ecosystems that can hold less than a liter of water. Mosquitoes Aedes triseriatus (Say) and Aedes albopictus (Skuse) encounter predatory Corethrella appendiculata (Grabham) and Toxorhynchites rutilus (Coquillett) in small containers and show antipredatory behavioral responses. We investigated the sources of the predation cues to which these prey larvae respond. We tested whether Ae. albopictus larvae show behavioral responses to cues emanating from the predator or from damage to prey caused by the act of predation. We also tested whether Ae. triseriatus respond to cues present in fluid or solid residues from predator activity. Ae. albopictus showed behavioral modifications only in response to waterborne cues from a feeding predator and not to cues from a starving predator, indicating that Ae. albopictus respond to cues created by the act of predation, which could include substances derived from damaged prey or substances in predator feces. Ae. triseriatus showed behavioral responses to solid residues from predation but not to fluid without those solids, indicating that the cues to which they respond originate in predator feces or uneaten prey body parts. Our results suggest that cues in this system may be primarily chemicals that are detected upon contact with solid residues that are products of the feeding processes of these predators.