In August 2018, the North American Coalition for Insect Agriculture (NACIA) organized a 3-d conference, Eating Insects Athens, in Athens, GA. The conference built on the success of the 2016 event, Eating Insects Detroit, and highlighted progress in both research and industry linked to insect agriculture. NACIA was created as a platform to strengthen an industry currently in its infancy. Goals of NACIA include, but are not limited to, promoting discussion about insect agriculture, educating, and streamlining efforts aimed at developing quality products for consumption by humans, livestock, poultry, or aquaculture. The 3-d Eating Insects Athens conference consisted of presentations, outreach events, and small group sessions to further develop the mission of NACIA. This overview article highlights some of the topics discussed at the conference, including optimizing production systems, developing standard operating procedures related to quality assurance, and investigating key issues such as palatability and bioavailability of insect nutrients, allergenicity, animal welfare, and ethics. Such research has the potential to improve the environmental impacts, resource efficiency, public acceptance, and regulatory approval of insect agriculture. Though the field and study of insect agriculture is young, the increased interest in research indicates a promising future.

The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.), is economically important due to its use in waste management and as an alternative protein source for livestock, poultry, and aquaculture. While industry promotes mass production of the black soldier fly, little is known about the impact of larval competition on development time, resulting immature and adult weight, or adult longevity. The goal of this research was to examine the life-history traits of black soldier flies when reared at four densities (500, 1,000, 1,500, and 2,000 larvae/4-liter container) provided 54-g Gainesville diet at 70% moisture (feed rates of 0.027, 0.036, 0.054, and 0.108 g) every other day. Results were as expected with the lowest larval density (500) producing heavier individuals (by 26%) than the greatest larval density (2,000) across all life stages. In addition to weights, larvae reared at the lowest density developed 63% faster than those reared at the greatest density. In regard to pupal development time, those reared at the lowest larval density developed 3% slower than the greatest density. A 21% difference between the two extreme densities was found in survivorship to prepupal stage, with the lowest larval density having the greatest survivorship (92%) compared with the greatest larval density (70%). All densities displayed over 90% adult emergence rates. Such information is vital for optimization of the process of converting waste products to protein at an industrial scale with the black soldier fly.

Some people have moral objections to insect consumption. After explaining the philosophical motivations for such objections, I discuss three of them, suggesting potential replies. The first is that insect consumption ignores the precautionary principle, which we can gloss here as “Don't know, don't farm.” In other words, although there might be evidence that insects are not conscious, we do not know that they are not; so, we should not take the moral risk associated with killing them en masse. The second concern is driven by a different way of assessing moral risk—namely, by calculating expected utility. The short version: even if it is incredibly unlikely that insects are conscious, farming them involves harming so many of them that it is better simply to grow plants instead. The third concern is about whether insects live “net negative lives,” with more pain than pleasure. The thought is that if they do, then their lives are not worth living overall, in which case it is wrong to bring them into existence. I conclude by considering the prospects for strategic alliances between animal advocates and those who promote insect consumption, in the even that they are unable to resolve their moral disagreements.

Although two billion people already eat insects in the world and the benefits of edible insects are well known, these ‘green' sources of protein are neither treated as conventional food products nor widely incorporated into Western diets. Using a school-based investigation surveying 161 children, aged 6–15, and 114 of their parents in London, and an online consumer survey with mainly British and French consumers (N = 1,020), this research provides insights into the potential of the insect market in the West. This work supports the idea that incorporating insect food into our diets makes not only environmental but also business sense. A nonnegligible segment of the population surveyed is willing to pay for mealworm minced meat and young children and pre-teens could represent a substantial market segment, as yet unexplored. This analysis points to multiple marketing strategies, such as early exposure, education, reducing the visibility of insect parts, celebrity endorsement, or peer-to-peer marketing, all of which could facilitate the adoption of insect food in the ‘mainstream’ arena, according to the consumer segment being targeted. Generalizations from these results are restricted to an educated and youthful subset of the potential consumer pool and further work remains to understand the patterns of Western consumer acceptance for the range of insect foods.

Humans have practiced entomophagy for thousands of years; yet until recently, interest from Western countries has emerged toward using insects as alternative proteins to feed the growing world population. Research shows that western cultures are in favor of consuming familiar foods formulated with insect protein. This has led to the productions of insect-derived flours, primarily from crickets and mealworms, which are now available in North American and European markets. Studies have shown limited functional properties of these insect flours. Food scientists have long used controlled enzymatic protein hydrolysis as means for improving the functionality of different animal and plant proteins. Consequently, the production of insect protein hydrolysates seems like a logical approach to improve the functionality and nutritional quality of insect flours. This article provides an overview of the application of controlled enzymatic hydrolysis to produce insect protein hydrolysates with improved protein functionality, as well as opportunities and challenges faced during their use in food and feed formulations.

Edible insects offer environmental and nutritional benefits, as they are characteristically nutrient-dense, are efficient biotransformers of organic material, and emit fewer greenhouse gasses than traditional livestock. Cultivating Tenebrio molitor (yellow mealworm) as ‘minilivestock’ is one possible means of increasing access to insect protein for food insecure populations. Tenebrio molitor growth and nutrient content varies with diet and rearing conditions, but little is known about the precise impact of poor quality feedstocks, such as maize crop residue (stover). Stover is widely available across sub-Saharan Africa where maize is a common dietary staple. Early instar larvae were reared under controlled conditions on three feed substrates: a standard control; a mixed soy, maize grain, and stover diet; and a 100% stover diet. Larvae reared for 32 d were analyzed for total amino acid profile, crude protein, and iron content. Larvae fed the three diets contained all essential amino acids for human nutrition and compared favorably to other traditional protein sources.The mixed diet contained 40% stover by weight and yielded amino acid values similar to the control diet, suggesting that some grain feedstock could be replaced with stover without hampering nutrient content. A second experiment demonstrated that T. molitor were able to complete metamorphosis and survive on a 100% stover diet for multiple generations. These results suggest that stover could be a suitable dietary component for T. molitor, which could facilitate the development of low-cost insect farming systems in low-resource settings that stand to benefit from increased access nutrient-dense edible insects.

Interest in the use of insects for animal feed applications is increasing due to the potential for more efficient production of protein and other nutrients compared to other more traditional sources. This review provides a brief overview of the potential of insects to provide efficient, sustainable nutrition for animal species, from commercially farmed animals, to pets and to exotic animals housed for conservation efforts.

Insects have great potential to serve as a sustainable food source owing to their notable nutritional value, high feed conversion rate, and low environmental footprint. The sharing of well-established recipes in cultures where insect consumption is normalized can facilitate new product development among cultures where consumption is resisted. In the current investigation, we traveled to both rural and urban areas of Oaxaca, Mexico and studied the collection, processing, retailing, and eating practices of edible insects such as chapulines [Sphenarium purpurascens Charpentier (Pyrgomorphidae, Orthoptera) and Melanoplus mexicanus (Saussure) (Acrididae, Orthoptera)], chicatanas [Atta mexicana (F. Smith) (Formicidae, Hymenoptera)], maguey worms [Comadia redtenbacheri (Hammerschmidt) (Cossidae, Lepidoptera)], and cochineal [Dactylopius coccus Costa (Dactylopiidae, Hemiptera)]. In rural communities where access to other animal-based foods has been limited, insects provided important nutritional value that today also translates into important economic value. Community members know the habits of the insects and are skilled at collecting them using sophisticated techniques. After collection, the insects are often toasted with or without seasonings for flavor and preservation. The processed insects are readily available in urban markets, and their importance in Oaxacan cuisine cannot be overestimated. Chapulines, chicatanas, and maguey worms are key ingredients in many spice mixes, salsas, and mole sauces. Cochineal is used as a food colorant. These insects are also found in a variety of foods, both sweet and savory, including omelets, tamales, quesadillas, chocolate truffles, and sorbets. As evidenced by the culinary uses of insects in Oaxaca, there is substantial potential for edible insects to become a delicacy in Western cultures.

Interest in edible insects has increased greatly since the 2013 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization demonstrated that insects offer an appealing option for a more sustainable livestock alternative. However, overcoming the cultural bias against insect consumption is necessary in order to see widespread adoption. In order to overcome the bias, it is important to first understand it. There is not a simple answer as to why westerners do not eat insects, but using the United States as an example, this paper works to untangle the history that western culture has with insects as food; a history that is stained by the colonial exploitation of native peoples. Notions that insects are a ‘primitive’ food source and the strong disgust response they trigger can be traced back to the 15th century and Age of Exploration. These ideas have persisted because of the perpetuation of European imperial attitudes and the unconscious transfer of the disgust emotion from parents to offspring for many generations. Fortunately, continued outreach events that normalize insects as food, especially those open to families, will be helpful in reprogramming mindsets that have been deeply rooted in our culture for centuries.

As the global population is expected to reach 9 billion people by 2050, food production must increase by 60% to meet demand. Increasing agricultural commodities to meet this demand for food products exacerbates several issues of human concern, such as over-fertilization and natural resource depletion. Further, changes in diets due to uncertainty in local crop availability change our food forecast. We are, however, poised to overcome agriculture and nutrition challenges, and become food secure by 2030. One challenge is to produce protein in a cost-effective, sustainable manner, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Protein is an essential key ingredient of livestock feeds, and is necessary for animal growth, body maintenance, and producing offspring. The use and optimization of farming insects for protein-rich livestock feed is a transformative area of agriculture-based research that will contribute to improved food security and meeting global sustainable developmental goals. The resulting need is to minimize the anthropogenic impacts through research-driven approaches that will improve sustainable agricultural practices. This need will be addressed with insects. Larvae of certain insects feed on decomposing organic matter and can reduce associated bacterial (including pathogens) populations. The resulting larvae can be dried, milled, and used as feed for livestock, including poultry and aquaculture. Optimizing insect life history traits and their associated microbes as novel feed for livestock is currently understudied, but has tremendous impact to increase agricultural sustainability, improve feed security, and be easily introduced into local food production chains in Africa.

Large-scale production of the black soldier fly [Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)] for use as aquaculture and poultry feed has developed into a global industry. Successful commercialization of the black soldier fly relies on optimizing the production of fecund adults. However, current mass-rearing protocols result in variable production of fertile eggs. To help lay a foundation for a better understanding of factors that may play a role in this variability, the morphology of the black soldier fly male reproductive tract and spermatozoa, associated spermatogenesis process, impact of age on the process, and the female spermatheca morphology were examined with various microscopic techniques (e.g., scanning electron microscope, transition electron microscope, and dissecting scope). The gross morphology of the male reproductive tract and female spermatheca appear to be similar to those found in other brachyceran flies. Male spermatozoa are long (∼860 µm overall, ∼8 µm head), apparently motile, and possess flagella with a typical 9 + 9 + 2 axoneme triplets. Germ cells go through incomplete mitotic divisions surrounded by somatic cyst cells in the testes. Spermatogenesis appears to be initiated during immature development (cryptocephalic pupa stage). From <24 h to 7 d post-emergence, male aging appeared to impact sperm production.