Lukow, O. M., Adams, K., Suchy, J., DePauw, R. M. and Humphreys, G. 2013. The effect of the environment on the grain colour and quality of commercially grown Canada hard white spring wheat,Triticum aestivumL. ‘Snowbird’. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 1-11. One of the main advantages of hard white wheat is its lighter grain colour, which can produce visually appealing lighter-coloured end-products. However, grain colour variation can be a concern due to a lack of consistency. This study was carried out to determine the effect of the environment on commercially grown hard white wheat grain colour and wheat grading. More than 1100 samples of the cultivar Snowbird were collected from elevators across western Canada during the 2003 to 2007 crop years. Grain and wholemeal colours were recorded using the CIE L* a* b* scale. Samples were analyzed for grain properties including dimensions, hardness and protein content. Variation in grain colour was mostly attributed to annual fluctuations in climatic conditions (71-79%) and agro-climates (13-18%). Grain ranged in colour from white and bright to dark grey-red. Grain brightness was very highly correlated with grain yellowness. Grain a* and b* were inversely related to grade indicating that higher quality grain was redder and more yellow than lower grades. Warmer and drier environments showed reduced grain yields but produced on average better quality grain with higher protein content.

Walden-Coleman, A. E., Rajcan, I. and Earl, H. J. 2013. Dark-adapted leaf conductance, but not minimum leaf conductance, predicts water use efficiency of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.). Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 13-22. The conductance to water vapor of dark-adapted leaves (g_dark) has been shown to be negatively correlated with whole-plant water use efficiency (WUE) in soybean, but the physiological basis of this relationship is unknown. It is also not clear how g_dark compares with the minimum leaf conductance of wilted leaves (g_min), a trait that has been studied extensively across a broad range of species. We compared g_dark to g_min of soybean leaves and found that g_dark values were consistently much higher than g_min values measured on the same leaves. Also, across seven soybean varieties known to differ for WUE, g_dark but not g_min was correlated with WUE. Thus, g_dark and g_min should be considered distinct traits. We measured g_dark at two different leaf positions, and found that g_dark measured at the lower leaf position (two main stem nodes below the youngest fully expanded leaf) was best correlated with WUE. We then used this method to screen a selection of current commercial soybean varieties adapted to Ontario, Canada, for variation in g_dark. The range in g_dark among the commercial varieties was as broad as that measured previously among more diverse genotypes, suggesting that Ontario soybean varieties might also vary widely for WUE.

Alam, M. Z., Braun, G., Norrie, J. and Hodges, D. M. 2013. Effect of Ascophyllum extract application on plant growth, fruit yield and soil microbial communities of strawberry. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 23-36. Plant growth and associated soil microbials were examined in several strawberry cultivars following treatment with extracts from the marine algae Ascophyllum nodosum [soluble Ascophyllum extract powder (SAEP)]. Greenhouse and field experiments were established over plots of Albion, Camarosa, Chandler, and Festival strawberries from 2009 to 2011. Soluble Ascophyllum extract powder was applied once or twice per week, or once per 2 wk at rates of 0 (control), 1, 2 or 4 g L^-l over approximately 8 wk. Subsequent rooting studies examined weekly applications of SAEP at 0, 0.2, 0.4, 1 or 2 g L^-1. Results indicate that maximum plant and berry productivities were found at 1 and 2 g SAEP L^-1 in both field and greenhouse. Chandler was the cultivar most responsive to SAEP application, while Albion was the least responsive. Soluble Ascophyllum extract powder increased colony counts in greenhouse and field soil samples with maximum colony counts at 4 g L^-1 SAEP in the greenhouse, and 1 and 2 g L^-1 SAEP in the field. Metabolic activities of soil microbes were found to increase following SAEP applications. Using the Biolog microbial analysis system, maximum average well colour development (AWCD), substrate diversity (H), substrate evenness (E), and substrate richness (S) responses were found at 4 g L^-1 SAEP in the greenhouse. However, in field trials, AWCD, H, E, and S responses to extract treatment showed successive increases at 1 and 2 g L^-1 SAEP, but reduced effect at 4 g L^-1. Soluble Ascophyllum extract powder treatment showed highest respiration rates between 0.10 and 0.40 g per week per plant while in vitro soil treatments with 4 g L^-1 SAEP reduced microbial respiration. This study suggests that SAEP applications increased strawberry root and shoot growth, berry yield and rhizosphere microbial diversity and physiological activity.

Hannam, K. D., Neilsen, G. H., Forge, T. and Neilsen, D. 2013. The concentration of yeast assimilable nitrogen in Merlot grape juice is increased by N fertilization and reduced irrigation. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 37-45. Vineyard management practices that can be used to elevate yeast-assimilable nitrogen (YAN) above the 140 mg N L^-1 required for efficient fermentation are of critical interest. The effects of N fertilization and reduced irrigation frequency on grape juice YAN, fruit composition and yield were examined in a 5-yr study on Merlot (Vitis vinifera L.) vines. Fertilization with N increased the concentration of YAN in grape juice by improving grapevine N status as indicated by petiole N concentrations. Reduced irrigation frequency appeared to have no effect on grape juice YAN status but short-term reductions in the quantity of applied water during the early stages of berry development in 2 of the study years did increase YAN. Juice pH was sometimes increased by reduced irrigation and N application treatments, but levels remained acceptable for wine production. Other measures of fruit composition were less sensitive to irrigation and N fertilization treatments. Inter-annual variability played an important role in determining grape juice YAN, fruit composition and yield. Future work should focus on refining management practices, e.g., the timing of N application, to minimize the effects of annual variability on grape juice YAN concentrations.

Khanam, U. K. S. and Oba, S. 2013. Bioactive substances in leaves of two amaranth species, Amaranthus tricolor and A. hypochondriacus. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 47-58. Bioactive substances and phenolic contents of Amaranthus tricolor and A. hypochondriacus leaves were evaluated using four cultivars of each species. Leaf colour attributes (L*, a* and b*) and betacyanins varied widely among the cultivars. The a* value, betacyanins and betaxanthins, appeared to be rich in A. tricolor, whereas betxanthins were twofold higher in A. hypochondriacus. Isoqercetin and rutin were the most abundant flavonoids in all amaranth cultivars. Hyperoside was found only in the A. hypochondriacus cultivar New Aztec. Salicylic acid, syringic acid, gallic acid, vanilic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid and sinapic acid were the most common phenolic acids in all amaranth cultivars. Significant amounts of ellagic acid and sinapic acid were detected in A. hypochondriacus cultivars. Total phenol content (TPC) was found to be strikingly greater than total phenol index (TPI) in A. tricolor than in A. hypochondriacus. All the amaranth cultivars showed a high correlation between total antioxidant activity and total phenol content.

Vera, C. L., Fox, S. L., DePauw, R. M., Smith, M. A. H., Wise, I. L., Clarke, F. R., Procunier, J. D. and Lukow, O. M. 2013. Relative performance of resistant wheat varietal blends and susceptible wheat cultivars exposed to wheat midge, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin). Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 59-66. Wheat midge, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin), causes significant yield losses to spring wheat in western Canada. To mitigate these losses, midge-resistant wheat varietal blends, consisting of cultivars with the Sm1 midge resistance gene and containing 10% of a midge susceptible cultivar (interspersed refuge), were made available to farmers. To test their performance relative to conventional midge-susceptible cultivars, four varietal blends were grown during four consecutive growing seasons at eight locations in the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, Canada, and compared with four conventional midge-susceptible cultivars. Midge damage varied from year to year during the 4-yr study. In general, the varietal blends, as a group, yielded more grain than the susceptible cultivars, especially when grown in environments with high (12.8%) seed damage. In environments with low (0.9%) seed damage, the varietal blend yield increases were smaller but still significant, suggesting that some of the varietal blends may be endowed with additional superior attributes, unrelated to midge resistance. The Sm1 gene was independent of time to heading and maturity, plant height, lodging and seed weight.

Al-Hammouri, A., Lindemann, W., Sanogo, S., Thomas, S. and Steiner, R. 2013. Short Communication: Interaction between Rhizoctonia solani and Meloidogyne incognita on chile pepper in soil infested simultaneously with both plant pathogens. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 67-69. The interaction of Rhizoctonia solani and Meloidogyne incognita was examined on chile. The frequency of recovery of Rhizoctonia, Meloidogyne egg counts, the Meloidogyne reproduction factor, and plant growth parameters were measured at 45, 60, and 75 d after soil infestation. The reproduction rate of M. incognita was not affected by the presence of R. solani. Similarly, R. solani infection was not affected by the presence of M. incognita. Neither plant biomass nor plant physiological measurements were affected by co-infectation with R. solani and M. incognita. These results indicate that little or no synergistic effect between R. solani and M. incognita occurred as a result of co-infection, and that no added adverse impact on chile occurred.

Lindgren, C. J., Castro, K. L., Coiner, H. A., Nurse, R. E. and Darbyshire, S. J. 2013. The Biology of Invasive Alien Plants in Canada. 12.Pueraria montanavar.lobata(Willd.) Sanjappa & Predeep. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 71-95. Kudzu, Pueraria montana var. lobata, is a perennial climbing vine known for its rapid and competitive growth. Introduced to North America and promoted at various times as a crop, an ornamental, and an erosion prevention tool, its negative impacts have been varied and severe in the United States. Dense populations overtop and smother crops and native vegetation, alter nitrogen cycles, and have the potential to affect air quality. Kudzu is winter-deciduous in North America with stems re-growing each season. In Canada, growth occurs from May until September, long enough for production of viable seed. Although widely believed to be intolerant of winter temperatures typical in eastern Canada, underground structures may be able to withstand temperatures as low as -30°C, and northward range expansion is predicted by climate change models. Dispersal in North America is primarily through intentional planting by humans, with clonal propagation and limited seed production and germination contributing to local population expansion. Only one population is known in Canada, near Leamington, Ontario. Once established, kudzu is difficult to eliminate or control without repeated actions. Efforts to prevent the movement and sale of kudzu in Canada, along with early detection and rapid response, monitoring, and education, offer potential strategies for control. Depending on the age, size and location of the population, herbicides, burning, mowing and grazing can be effective control measures.

Rashid, A., Hwang, S. F., Ahmed, H. U., Turnbull, G. D., Strelkov, S. E. and Gossen, B. D. 2013. Effects of soil-borneRhizoctonia solanion canola seedlings after application of glyphosate herbicide. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 97-107. Application of glyphosate (N-phosphonomethyl glycine) prior to seeding is a common weed management practice in many agricultural systems. However, there are concerns that this practice may increase the impact of soil-borne diseases on the crop, even in cultivars that are resistant to glyphosate. In the current study, the effects of pre-plant applications of glyphosate on seedling blight of canola caused by Rhizoctonia solani and subsequent crop growth were examined under field and greenhouse conditions. Under greenhouse conditions in soil inoculated with R. solani, glyphosate application 15 d before seeding reduced seedling emergence, increased damping-off, and decreased plant height and shoot dry weight of canola relative to a glyphosate-free control. However, the adverse effects were substantially reduced when the crop was seeded 33 d after glyphosate application. This indicates that glyphosate application prior to planting may increase the impact of R. solani on canola seedlings, but that this effect diminishes quite rapidly. Soil populations of R. solani declined over the 33-d period regardless of glyphosate treatment. Glyphosate application 10 d before seeding increased seedling emergence and seed yield (1 of 2 yr) of canola in field trials inoculated with R. solani.

May, W. E., Holzapfel, C. B., Lafond, G. P. and Schoenau, J. J. 2013. Does the presence of the gene for glabrous hull in annual canarygrass affect the response to chloride fertilizer? Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 109-118. Annual canarygrass is an important cereal crop in western Canada with a unique niche market as feed for caged birds. Chloride (Cl) fertilizer has been shown to increase seed yield in annual canarygrass; however, the response was only tested in one glabrous cultivar. Currently, glabrous cultivars created through mutagenesis, are lower yielding than cultivars with trichomes on their lemma, palea and glumes. The objective of this study was to determine if the mutagenic process which created cultivars that lack trichomes on their lemma, palea and glumes also affected the response of annual canarygrass to chloride fertilizer. A two-way factorial study was conducted across 7 site-years. The first factor was Cl applied at two rates (0 and 18.2 kg Cl ha^-1) and the second factor was four cultivars (Keet, Cantate, CDC Togo (glabrous) and CDC Bastia (glabrous). The application of Cl increased the seed yield of annual canarygrass by 25% and most of this increase was due to a 21% increase in seeds per panicle. Kernel weight also contributed to increased seed yield. Chloride did not interact with the presence or absence of trichomes and therefore growers can expect to receive a yield increase from the application of Cl regardless of the annual canarygrass cultivar grown. Growers should apply 9 kg ha^-1 of Cl when growing annual canarygrass. In conclusion, Cl is not involved in the physiology of the lower yield in glabrous cultivars compared with cultivars with trichomes, and Cl could not explain the seed yield differences between the two types of annual canarygrass.

Ma, Y., She, X. and Yang, S. 2013. Cytosolic alkalization-mediated H₂O₂and NO production are involved in darkness-induced stomatal closure inVicia faba. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 119-130. Darkness raised cytosolic pH, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and nitric oxide (NO) levels in guard cells while inducing Vicia faba stomatal closure. These darkness effects were prevented by weak acid butyric acid, H₂O₂ modulators ascorbic acid (ASA), catalase (CAT), diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) and NO modulators 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (c-PTIO), N^G-nitro-L-arg-methyl ester (L-NAME) respectively. The data suggest that cytosolic alkalization, H₂O₂ and NO all participate in darkness-induced stomatal closure. During darkness treatment, pH rise became noticeable at 10 min and peaked at 25 min, while H₂O₂ and NO production increased significantly at 20 min and reached their maximums at 40 min. The H₂O₂ and NO levels were increased by methylamine in light and decreased by butyric acid in darkness. The results show that cytosolic alkalization induces H₂O₂ and NO production. ASA, CAT and DPI suppressed NO production by methylamine, c-PTIO and L-NAME prevented H₂O₂ generation by methylamine. Calcium chelator 1,2-bis (2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid acetoxymethyl ester (BAPTA-AM) and 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA) restricted darkness-induced alkalization, H₂O₂ and NO production and stomatal closure. We suggest that cytosolic alkalization is necessary for H₂O₂ and NO production during darkness-induced stomatal closure. H₂O₂ mediates NO synthesis by alkalization, and vice versa. Calcium may act upstream of cytosolic alkalization, H₂O₂ and NO production, besides its known action downstream of H₂O₂ and NO.

Navabi A., Rupert, T., Park, S. J, Yu, K., Smith, T. H. and Pauls, K. P. 2013. Apex common bean. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 131-135. Apex (CFIA registration no. 7052) is an indeterminate, full-season navy bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivar with an upright plant architecture, suitable for direct harvest, high yield potential, moderate resistance to common bacterial blight (CBB; caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli) and superior cooking quality. Apex is adapted to and recommended for the dry bean growing areas with higher than 2700 CHU in southwestern Ontario.

Pozniak, C. J. 2013. CDC Vivid durum wheat. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 137-141. CDC Vivid durum wheat is adapted to the durum production area of the Canadian prairies. This conventional height durum wheat cultivar combines high grain yield potential with high grain pigment and protein concentrations and low grain cadmium. CDC Vivid is strong-strawed and has similar maturity and disease resistance to the current check cultivars.

Humphreys, D. G., Townley-Smith, T. F., Czarnecki, E., Lukow, O. M., McCallum, B., Fetch, T., Gilbert, J., Menzies, J., Brown, D. and Fox, S. L. 2013. Snowstar hard white spring wheat. Can. J. Plant Sci. 93: 143-148. Snowstar is a hard white spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) that represents an improvement in end-use quality specifications of the Canada Western Hard White Spring wheat class compared with Snowbird. Snowstar was evaluated in the Central Bread Wheat Cooperative Test in 2003, and the Hard White Wheat Cooperative Test in 2004 and 2005. Snowstar appears best adapted to the longer season wheat-growing areas of the Canadian prairies. Snowstar was generally lower yielding than the check cultivars. However, in Zone 1 (Manitoba and eastern Saskatchewan), Snowstar had 2% higher grain yield than CDC Teal (2003-2005) and 1.5% more than Snowhite475 (2004-2005). In 2003 and 2005 (Zone 1), Snowstar had grain yield approximately 3% more than Snowbird (data not shown). Snowstar was resistant or moderately resistant to the prevalent races of leaf rust and stem rust. Snowstar was susceptible to common bunt and loose smut. Snowstar was generally more resistant to Fusarium head blight than the check cultivars. Snowstar had higher test weight, flour yield and whiter flour as well as stronger dough compared with Snowbird.