An ethnobotanical survey was carried out to collect information on the use of medicinal plants by the Lisu people who live in the mountainous areas of the Nujiang Canyon (Salween River Valley) in Nujiang Prefecture, northwestern Yunnan Province, China. A total of 52 medicinal plants, belonging to 32 families, were reported as being used locally for the treatment of human ailments. The scientific and Lisu names, parts used, and preparation of the plants are presented. Most of these species are wild (80%), while others are domesticated (8%) or semi-cultivated (12%). Among the 52 species, 11 species (21.2%) were reported as rare and 16 were widely commercialized in the region. Over-exploitation and deforestation are the main causes for the depletion of medicinal plants in this area. The Lisu people still mostly depend on medicinal plants for their health care. The loss and endangered status of these plants will, to a certain extent, impede their existing health care system; conservation and sustainable harvest of medicinal plants in the area are urgently needed.

Forest-based farmers are faced with rapidly changing economic opportunities due to many factors. In response, farmers are changing their main economic activities and land uses. This study compares the financial costs and benefits of the principal land use options in two sub-districts of East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Financial benefits of oil palm plantation, traditional rattan gardens, intensive rubber plantation, and traditional rubber plantation are compared on a land unit basis. Oil palm is by far the most profitable, followed by rattan gardens. Rubber production, at current prices, is not profitable. Benefit-cost ratios and returns to labor, which better reflect the farmer perspective, reveal that rattan is more attractive, with oil palm in a strong second place. Non-financial considerations also help to explain the resilience of the rattan garden system. The conclusions summarize the findings and offer options to counter the strong negative impact of recent events on the rattan farmers.

Phylogenetic relationships were analyzed in nine species belonging to subgenus Ceratotropis (genus Vigna, Papilionaceae), including cultivated, weedy and wild races of azuki bean (V. angularis), and five outgroup species by sequences in the trnL intron and trnL-F intergenic spacer of cpDNA, in order to perform molecular identification of archaeological beans in Japan. The modern species of subgenus Ceratotropis had similar sequences in the two non-coding regions ranging from 952 bp to 1027 bp with 36 substitutions and 6 indels. The strict consensus phylogenetic tree confirmed the monophyly of the Ceratotropis and two subordinate groups: the azuki bean group and the mung bean group. The azuki bean group was comprised of three races of azuki bean, rice bean (V. umbellata), V. nakashimae and V. minima var. minor. The mung bean group was comprised of mung bean (V. radiata), blackgram (V. mungo), moth bean (V. aconitifolia), V. trilobata and V. reflexopilosa. All accessions of V. angularis, including cultivated, weedy and wild azuki beans, shared the same sequence with a specific deletion of 51 bp. Since this deletion was confirmed in the archaeological beans excavated from the ruins during the Yayoi (ca. 2300 yr B.P.), Satsumon s(650 yr B.P.), and Edo (155 yr B.P.) periods of Japan, it is suggested here that the azuki bean has long been utilized in Japan.

People in Benin who cannot resort to allopathic medicines provided by the pharmaceutical industry use many species of plants to alleviate malaria symptoms. Complicated mixtures of different parts of several plant species are employed orally or as a bathing substance. The inventory of 85 species and 30 mixtures bought by us in southern Benin is by no means exhaustive, but the lists serve as examples of the widespread uses in medicine in a restricted area.

More than 18 000 archaeological sites have bxeen identified, and a dozen rock shelter sites investigated in the Zeekoe Valley, Upper Karoo, South Africa, but no work has been performed to date regarding edible plant remains. A baseline for understanding potential contribution of plants to the Zeekoe Valley diet is crucial for developing models of land use and mobility patterns for Late Stone Age (LSA) inhabitants, particularly since ethnographically known foragers in Botswana, some 800 km to the north, are as much as 80% dependent on plant foods for their survival. Since native foraging groups are long extinct in this semi-arid region with abundant natural springs, a rigorous investigation of botanical and ethnohistoric literature forms the groundwork for field investigations where direct ethnographic observation is no longer an option. First, edible species in the study area are identified in the literature. They are then sought on the ground with the aid of local informants whose families have resided in the valley for generations. It appears as though some knowledge of local plants gained from native foragers 150 years ago or more has remained in Afrikaans families passed down from landowning parent to child. On the ground, collection and middle range experimentation was followed by basic nutritional analysis. These measures were then used to compare foraging efficiency to measures from extant foraging groups. While dozens of edible species were identified, five plant species formed the focus of this study: Slymstock Uintjie (Albuca canadensis); Boesman Uintjie (Cyperus usitatus, Cyperus fulgens); Jakkalsbosberry (Diospyros austro-africana); Rooi wortel (Pelargorium sidoides); and Osbossie (Talinum caffrum). Results suggest native foraging groups, now extinct in the vicinity, may have been 60% or more dependent on plant food resources, despite abundance of game in the area and in the archaeological record.

Humulus lupulus (hops) bitter acids, which are well known for their antimicrobial property against Grampositive bacteria have negligible activity against Gramnegative bacteria. The hop acids are, however, antiprotozoal. Ciliated protozoa were more sensitive to hop acids than amoebae. Plasmodia were also sensitive but at a lower level than to the synthetic anti malarial drugs. Beta resin, tetra iso alpha acid and xanthohumol were studied and the latter was found to be particularly potent against the protozoa. Carbon dioxide enhanced the protozoicidal effect of hop acids. New data were also presented on specific antifungal activities. In agreement with the literature hop had very little antifungal property, however a slight coaction was seen between hop and sorbate on R. nigricans. Carbon dioxide had no enhancing effect on the inhibitory activity of hop against fungi as well as E. coli.

An examination of the mythic and artistic records of India and Southeast Asia indicates that the famous psychotropic of the ancient Aryans was the eastern lotus, Nelumbo nucifera. Vedic epithets, metaphors, and myths that describe the physical and behavioral characteristics of the ‘soma’ plant as a sun, serpent, golden eagle, arrow, lightning bolt, cloud, phallic pillar, womb, chariot, and immortal navel, relate individually or as a whole to the eastern lotus. Since most Hindu and Buddhist gods and goddesses trace their origins from the Vedas and have always shared close symbolic associations with Nelumbo, there is reason to believe the divine status of this symbolic plant derives from India's prehistoric past.

A field study in the Cofre de Perote region found that edible mushrooms play an important role in the socio-economics activities of the local population. Several very old common names indicate a long-standing traditional knowledge about this regional resource. Recent changes in marketing mushrooms are evident.

Moringa is an Old-World dry tropical plant genus with great food, horticultural, industrial, and pharmaceutical potential. Although many of the thirteen known Moringa species are in danger of extinction, one species, M. oleifera Lam., is now widely cultivated. M. oleifera was therefore utilized to develop micropropagation techniques that may be applicable to the more endangered members of this genus. Immature seeds were the most responsive tissue source, and greatest success was achieved using membrane rafts and a liquid growth medium. The success rate was 73%, but the multiplication rate averaged only 4.7 shoots per culture. Most vigorous plantlet development through the transplant stage was achieved using a commercial plant preservative formulation of isothiazolones following shoot proliferation. Although there was no evidence of contamination, treatment with this microbiocide prevented early tissue senescence and it increased culture survivability.

This paper reports the use of Brugmansia species (Solanaceae) in traditional practices of shamans (curanderos) of Northern Peruvian Andes. The field study permitted the classification of a number of species and/or their hybrids used for both curative and psychotropic activities. There is evidence of a folk systematics in this genus that constitutes a very important phenomenon for its therapeutic-divinatory, phytotherapeutical, and ritual (in initiation and black magic rites) uses.

Cacti of the genus Opuntia are an economically important crop. Understanding the mechanisms they possess to protect against UV radiation is important for assessing their possible response to climatic change. Measurements of the concentrations of UV-screening compounds and epidermal transmittance for two species of platyopuntia, Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck. and O. phaeacantha Engelm. during 1998 and 1999 were used to investigate the UV-protection afforded by the cactus epidermis. A UV-radiative transfer model was used to investigate the interception of UV radiation on differently oriented surfaces. We show that vertical morphology itself confers significant protection against UV radiation compared to a horizontal surface. Concentrations of UV-screening flavonoids were found to vary depending on the UV exposure of different surfaces. West-facing surfaces had lower concentrations than east-facing surfaces, although theoretically they should be identical. This might be explained by the higher mean temperatures on west-facing surfaces. Although UV-absorbing soluble flavonoids in the epidermis block both UV-B and UV-A, the structure of the epidermis alone may be sufficient to remove up to 94% of the UV-B portion of the spectrum. These data yield insights into possible mechanisms of recent declines in cacti populations.

The Kucong, a branch of Lahu and an indigenous ethnic group living in Jinping County, Yunnan Province, China, have a very short history of settled village life (about 40 years). According to the data of ethnobotanical investigation, 118 species of medicinal plants belonging to 57 families and 98 genera used by Lahu healers have been inventoried. The characteristics of medicinal plants coming from a great number of families and genera relate to the traditional life-style of the Lahu. The more common the diseases are, the more abundant the related medicinal knowledge is. The most frequently used parts of medicinal plants are the leaf (35.22%) and root (32.08%). The disappearance of environments related to the traditional life-style of the Lahu threatens the existence of their traditional medicinal knowledge, similar to threats facing many other traditional medicines. Collection and inventory should be essential research fields in studies of traditional medicine.

More than 16 000 grains of small-grained grasses were retrieved at Ohalo II, a submerged 23 000-year-old site on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Israel. The grains were part of a very large archaeobotanical assemblage, unique for its period and region, as well as its exceptionally good preservation. This paper proposes that these grains were a staple food at Ohalo II, based on several lines of evidence: 1. the large number of grains found; 2. the fact that all grains were fully mature; and 3. ethnographic parallels for the use of small-grained grasses in hunter-gatherers' societies as well as among present-day agriculturalists.

This study focuses on plants used for medicinal purposes in the Mt. Pelion area of Greece; however other plant uses were noted when discovered. A total of 225 taxa representing 77 families are presented along with habitat data and ethnobotanical information when relevant. Some notes on related species are also included. In addition to ethnobotanical field research which included collection of voucher specimens, ancient literature pertaining to plant usage was also consulted. Local markets that sold wild plants or their products were investigated as well. Some plants not known to be ethnobotanically significant were also collected in order to learn more about species distribution on Mt. Pelion. It is possible that ancient plant usage information that was lost due to the destruction of classical literary works has survived in the oral tradition in the Mt. Pelion area and elsewhere in Greece. A number of little known psychoactive and narcotic plant uses (including ivy as an additive to wine) are reported in this publication.

This paper focuses on medicinal plants found on the Caribbean island of Montserrat; however, other plant uses were also documented when found. Two hundred seventy-two taxa from seventy-eight families are listed along with habitat information and ethnobotanical notes when pertinent. Brief treatments of the islands' vegetation and geographical conditions are also included. Montserrat is a tropical island with a diverse flora and a rich heritage of plant folklore, the latter encompassing traditions passed down from Africans, Caribbean Amerindians, and Europeans. Prior to the recent volcanic eruptions, the author did a taxonomic study of ethnobotanically important plants found on Montserrat. Although the main purpose of this study was to gather ethnobotanical information, a number of plants which are not known to be ethnobotanically important to Montserratians were collected in order to augment our knowledge of the flora of the island. The island's recent devastating volcanic eruptions (resulting in the deaths of several informants and obliteration of large tracts of vegetation) have made the data collected in this project all the more significant.

Recently, the geographic origin of plant species comprising indigenous Amazonian pharmacopoeias has been addressed. However, the origins of plant species in Andean pharmacopoeias have not. To fill this gap, we reviewed the pharmacopoeia of the Kallawaya herbalists of Bolivia for exotic plant species. The Kallawaya are the most renowned herbalists of South America and travel extensively throughout the Andes to collect medicinal plant species. Approximately 30% of the Kallawaya pharmacopoeia is comprised of exotic plant species. Many of these species are used in a variety of contexts (e.g., food, hygiene, beverages, ornamentals, timber, dyes, aromatics, hallucinogens) in addition to medicinal. This case study demonstrates the evolution of indigenous pharmacopoeias as a result of cross-cultural plant transfer.

Prosopis africana is a multipurpose tree of great economic value among the rural communities in the Guinea savanna of Nigeria. The fruit of the tree is used as feed for animals, while the seeds are fermented to make ukpehe, a highly proteinaceous condiment. The tree is not cultivated. The products from the hard wood, such as some wooden farm implements, kitchen utensils, and planks for construction, are extensively traded. The tree is a good source of firewood and charcoal. The secondary roots are used as medicine. Fully documented and discussed here are the various uses of some parts of the tree, including the stem, seeds, and roots.

This study examines the adaptation and evolution of the Hawaiian ethnopharmacopoeia looking specifically at the inclusion of recently introduced plants in the pharmacopoeia as recorded within ethnobotanical studies from 1838–2002. Generally, the number of native plants (both indigenous and endemic) recorded in ethnobotanical studies decreases over time, while the number of recently introduced plant increases. This study lists the recently introduced plants, the date they were first recorded as part of the ethnopharmacopoeia, and their place of origin. It also discusses some of the possible factors influencing the inclusion of new plants in the Hawaiian medical tradition, building on and adding to the current work on the origin of Polynesian herbal medicine.

The Euphorbiaceae is an extensive family of plants that includes about 300 genera and 5000 species and is mainly distributed in tropical areas. For a long time this family has been recognized and reported for its anti-cancer components, anti-hepatitis B components and carcinogenic factors. In the literature of ancient traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 33 species of plants from 17 genera of Euphorbiaceae have been mentioned as medicines. We report here the results of our recent investigation. The locations under investigation were in Guangdong Province, Guangxi Zhuang Nationality Autonomous Region and Hainan Province in southeastern China. There were 111 species within 35 genera of medicinal Euphorbiaceous plants reported, along with their folk usages. Among them, 17 species are used to treat snakebites. It was observed that most of the species within the Euphorbiaceae family contained toxic components. In fact, only a few species are employed as widespread medicines throughout China—most species are recognized only as local minority tribe medicines.

Tropical landscapes represent storehouses of medicinal drug plants. It is widely held that these medicinal resources—real and potential—are threatened by a host of destructive forces. This paper examines these threats, especially the process of culture change and ethnobotanical erosion, in a rural Brazilian community. Employing a quantitative analysis of a sample plant pharmacopoeia, we investigate the relationship between medicinal plant knowledge and age, gender, and socio-economic standing. The results indicate that female gender, increasing age, illiteracy, and decreasing formal education are all positively correlated with level of medicinal plant knowledge. The process of modernization, particularly increasing access to formal education, appears to be incompatible with the retention of traditional domains of medical knowledge. Increasingly perceived as an irrelevant province of past generations, knowledge of the healing powers of tropical forests and fields is rapidly declining in this community.

An ethnobotanical survey of practicing dyers in the biodiversity rich ecosystems of Sierra Leone and of the literature was conducted on the common plant species used to produce natural dyes. In addition, the methods used to obtain these dyes and to dye fabric, together with the techniques used to produce various patterns on fabric were investigated. Although the thriving dye industry is now predominantly serviced by synthetic dyes, the knowledge of the plants used still survives among some dyers, who use plant dyes to some extent. However this indigenous knowledge is rapidly being lost as increasingly less of it is being passed on to succeeding generations. Several plants used in the dyeing process are documented, together with their taxonomic characteristics; local names; how the dyes are produced and fabric dyed; the colors obtained; in addition to how various patterns are designed. Sustainable utilization of this important renewable natural resource is discussed.

The Lowland Mayan culture has been one of the most successful in Mesoamerica. Being an agricultural society, part of their success was based on plant genetic resources which satisfied their needs of social reproduction. This article reviews recent evidence on early agriculture in the geographic area where Lowland Maya culture originated, and discusses its implications for the study of plant domestication and evolution under human selection within this cultural sub-area. Questions of interest for future research are posed. As working hypotheses, we list two categories of species possibly implicated in the origin of this civilization: (1) native species that could have been the subject of local human selection or to some degree of agricultural manipulation by 3400 b.c., and (2) species that could have been introduced from other cultural areas of America by 3400 b.c. and subsequently subjected to local human selection.

This is a cultural, ecological, economic, geographical and historical study of the close wild relatives of sesame in Africa. Medical, culinary, cosmetic and industrial use of each species is assembled along with ethnographic and linguistic data. Collectively, it presents a summary of the genetic resources of Sesamum. The relative importance of each species varies by location, however most of these taxa are used in strikingly similar ways by subsistence farmers. Comparison of usage by ethnic group reveals the social role these valuable leaf vegetables play in daily life, particularly during times of shortage and famine. Fieldwork provides firsthand data, supplementing herbarium specimens and the published literature about the distribution, uses and environmental adaptations of wild Sesamum species and their close relative, Ceratotheca sesamoides Endl.