Little is known about the normal bacterial flora of the skin of birds. To identify the bacterial organisms that reside on the integument of companion psittacine birds in a normal physiologic state, skin cultures were taken from 75 psittacine birds comprising 25 Congo African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), 25 budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus), and 25 cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). All birds were adults and in good health with no underlying identifiable diseases, had not been on antibiotics in the preceding 2 months or longer, and had no skin or feather abnormalities. Cultures were taken from the axillary region and incubated on bovine blood agar plates. Positive cultures were identified for 52 out of 75 birds, and a total of 89 bacterial colonies grew. The most frequently identified bacterial organisms belonged to the genus Staphylococcus followed by Corynebacterium. Several other genera of bacteria were also isolated. Of the 89 bacterial colonies, 25 were identified to the species level and 50 to the genus level, and 14 were identified as either a nonfermenter or coliform.

An uncontrolled clinical study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of a multidrug protocol in 16 ring-neck doves (Streptopelia risoria) from a flock naturally infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp avium. The doves were considered infected on the basis of a high prevalence of infection in a group of 29 birds that were euthanatized from the same flock and clinical signs and pathologic results consistent with infection in the remaining birds. All birds were treated with azithromycin (43 mg/kg), rifampin (45 mg/kg), and ethambutol (30 mg/kg) administered orally once daily for 180 days. Five birds died during treatment and were confirmed positive for mycobacteriosis on postmortem examination. Of the remaining 11 birds, infection and disease were present in 9 (81.8%) at the end of the treatment. Postmortem investigation showed that 2 mycobacterial isolates were resistant to ethambutol, intermediately sensitive to rifampin, and sensitive to azithromycin. Microscopic examination of liver sections equivalent of those that would be taken for biopsy showed that biopsy as a method of monitoring birds for treatment success had poor sensitivity. Toxicity associated with drug therapy was not observed in these doves nor in 6 outwardly healthy ring-neck doves exposed to the same treatment. The results of this study showed that this protocol of azithromycin, rifampin, and ethambutol has poor efficacy when administered for 180 days for treatment of doves infected with M avium subsp avium.

Cloacal or fecal Gram's stains and bacterial cultures are routinely performed during avian physical examinations to assess the microbial flora of the gastrointestinal tract. Although cloacal or fecal Gram's stains and bacterial cultures are considered routine diagnostic procedures, the level of agreement between the individual tests has not been determined. To investigate the level of agreement between results from Gram's stain and bacterial culture when used to assess cloacal or fecal samples from psittacine birds, samples were taken from 21 clinically healthy Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis) and tested by Gram's stain cytology and bacterial culture. Most bacteria (97.2%) identified by Gram's stain were gram positive. However, gram-negative organisms were identified in 7 of 21 (33.3%; 95% confidence interval: 13.3%–53.3%) birds. Escherichia coli was the only gram-negative organism identified on culture. Agreement between results of Gram's stain and culture was fair (weighted κ = 0.27). The results of this study suggest that Gram's stains and bacterial culture may need to be performed with a parallel testing strategy to limit the likelihood of misclassifying the microbial flora of psittacine patients.

Histopathologic analysis performed on tissue samples from 34 captive psittacine birds over a 14-year period demonstrated gastrointestinal cryptosporidiosis. Although 8 birds had died unexpectedly, at least 10 showed gastrointestinal signs before death. Most birds had other significant pathologic lesions, unrelated to cryptosporidiosis, in which case Cryptosporidium was likely a secondary pathogen. However, in 11 birds the only significant histopathologic finding was gastrointestinal cryptosporidiosis. In 2 lovebird (Agapornis species) cases, direct sequencing of proventricular samples confirmed the presence of Cryptosporidium avian genotype III. A description and analysis of the pathologic findings in these 34 birds, as well as a review of avian gastrointestinal cryptosporidiosis, is provided.

Medical records of wild bird admissions to the Australian Wildlife Health Centre at Healesville Sanctuary were analyzed for cases of unilateral coracoid fractures with known final outcomes. Forty-seven birds, comprising 13 species, fit these criteria. Of those birds, 18 were treated conservatively with analgesia and cage rest without coaptation bandaging, and 29 were treated with surgical correction of the fracture. Of the conservatively managed birds, 89% (16 of 18) were released back into the wild. Conversely, 34% (10 of 29) of the surgically managed birds were released. Treatment success for release differed significantly between treatment groups (P < .001). Intraoperative death from concurrent trauma was the major reason that surgically treated birds were not released. Given the high risks associated with surgical treatment and the high success rate of conservative management, cage rest without surgery appears prudent when managing coracoid injuries in birds.

A 5-month-old African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) was examined after 3 weeks of weakness, ataxia, mental depression, and seizures. Results of a complete blood cell count and plasma biochemical analysis were unremarkable. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed a severe bilateral hydrocephalus. The bird failed to improve with supportive care, and the owner requested euthanasia. Necropsy findings were severe bilateral hydrocephalus with no evidence of cerebrospinal fluid obstruction. Histologic examination of the brain revealed microspongiosis, edema, gliosis, and neuronal chromatolysis of surrounding periventricular tissue. Aquaporins (AQP) and astrocytes were examined to elucidate the participation of these water channel proteins and glial cells in the pathophysiology and resolution of hydrocephalus. Results showed AQP4 and glial fibrillary acidic protein were overexpressed, especially near the ventricles, but expression of AQP1 was decreased. This is the first report, to our knowledge, of AQP immunolabeling in hydrocephalus in avain species.

An adult male sun conure (Aratinga solstitialis) was evaluated because of lethargy, ruffled feathers, and decreased appetite. Physical examination revealed hypothermia, dehydration, dyspnea, and crop distention. Results of a complete blood cell count revealed a marked inflammatory leukogram, and cytologic examination of a crop swab sample identified gram-negative bacilli and occasional yeast organisms. Radiographs demonstrated an opaque, ill-defined, soft tissue structure in the caudal coelom just cranial to the renogonadal silhouette, loss of serosal detail, and splenomegaly. Endoscopic examination revealed a pale, granuloma-like structure within the caudal aspect of the left lung, splenomegaly, and an enlarged proventriculus. Intraoperative cytologic examination of a biopsy sample of the lesion demonstrated yeast organisms, and a subsequent culture of the biopsy sample revealed Candida albicans. The bird was treated intraoperatively with intralesional amphotericin B. Postoperative treatment consisted of meloxicam, trimethoprim sulfa, amphotericin B by nebulization, and systemic itraconazole and fluconazole. The bird made a complete recovery, was discontinued from all medications, and has remained asymptomatic for 6 months. Although rare, pulmonary candidiasis should be on the list of differential diagnoses for any respiratory infection in birds. Endoscopic biopsy, cytology, and fungal culture were valuable in making the diagnosis.

A 1.5-year-old, intact female khaki Campbell duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) was evaluated for lethargy and a swollen left eye (OS). Mucoid discharge, chemosis, and conjunctival hyperemia with trace aqueous flare, indicating anterior uveitis, in the anterior chamber were evident on ophthalmic examination. There was no fluorescein stain uptake by the cornea. Initial topical antibiotic therapy and systemic anti-inflammatory treatments were unsuccessful, and the lesion progressed to a diffuse, yellow-white plaque, which covered 90%–95% of the cornea 4 days later. There was moderate blepharospasm, mild blepharedema, and epiphora OS. The mobility of the nictitating membrane was impaired because of the presence of the plaque over the cornea. Cytologic examination of a corneal scraping revealed fungal hyphae, and aerobic culture confirmed Aspergillus species. Treatment with topical voriconazole (1 drop OS q4h–q6h) was initiated and was switched to oral voriconazole (20 mg/kg PO q12h) 6 days after initiating treatment. The ocular disease improved during the antifungal treatment period. Eighty-four days after initial presentation (9 days after discontinuation of treatment), there was no clinical evidence of mycotic keratitis on ophthalmic examination.

A 37-year-old, female Chilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis) presented with severe facial angioedema, bilateral corneal and palpebral edema, nictitating membrane paralysis, bradycardia, bradypnea, hypothermia, and numerous stingers and remnants of eastern yellow jacket wasps (Vespula maculifrons) attached to the feathers of the head, palpebrae, and conjunctiva. Evaluation of 2 complete blood cell counts and results of plasma chemical analysis and serum protein electrophoresis revealed severe increases in creatinine phosphokinase and aspartate aminotransferase activity, electrolyte disturbances, and moderate increases in levels of α₁, α₂, β_1, and γ immunoglobulins when compared with reference interval values and conspecifics. Despite intensive treatment, the bird died 19 hours after presentation. Results of histologic evaluation of tissues were compatible with envenomation. Response to envenomation in avian species is not documented but should be considered in birds presenting with angioedema.