Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2015. Autoclassification versus cognitive interpretation of digital bathymetric data in terms of geomorphological features for seafloor characterization.

The determination of seafloor geomorphological features has always been a difficult task, and it was not until the advent of marine remote sensing techniques that seafloor features could be accurately discerned. Airborne acquisition of digital bathymetric data provides a wealth of information that can be interpreted in different ways. This paper considers the pros and cons of computerized autoclassifications versus cognitive interpretations of seafloor features. The continental shelf off the southeast Florida coast contains LADS (laser airborne depth sounding) surveys that are here used to compare and contrast automated classifications of bathymetry with cognitive differentiation of marine geomorphological features. There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each approach, and the choice of methods depends on the purpose or goals of the project. Once seafloor features have been cognitively discerned from enhanced, color ramped, and vertically exaggerated bathymetry, machine classifications can be compared with known units. Using ArcGIS^® ArcMap software, five- and seven-class unsupervised isocluster autoclassifications were found to moderately represent known bottom topography, whereas the interactive supervised autoclassification closely approximated cognitively discerned bathymetric patterns. Hand-drawn or digitized cognitively derived maps were more generalized than supervised computerized classifications based on training fields. Overall, both methods were found to be beneficial approaches, as they complement each other.

Monge, J.A. and Gornish, E.S., 2015. Positive species interactions as drivers of vegetation change on a barrier island.

Positive species interactions have been shown to occur in a variety of plant systems, and the importance of these interactions is expected to vary with resource availability and abiotic stress. The processes by which these types of relationships operate and influence plant communities in coastal environments, however, are not fully understood. Positive species interactions were observed in areas of St. George Island, Florida, shortly after transplanting dune species for a restoration experiment designed to encourage the growth of foredune, interdune, and backdune vegetation. The dune habitats in St. George are subject to abiotic stresses that vary in type and magnitude, and the environmental factors responsible for ameliorating these conditions and encouraging positive vegetation change operate differently across these areas. We (1) investigated if transplants encouraged positive changes in vegetation across dune habitats, (2) determined whether disturbance (through transplanting) played a role, and (3) tested environmental factors involved in positive interactions to explain the changes in vegetation observed across dune habitats. The presence of transplants positively modified vegetation (e.g., species richness or cover) across all dune habitats. Experimental disturbance had no strong overall positive effect on vegetation change. Shading and soil moisture redistribution had differential effects on vegetation change among habitats, suggesting that these environmental factors interact with the abiotic characteristics unique to each dune habitat in complex ways. Our results suggest that experimentation over a longer time scale might be required to fully understand the extent at which positive interactions affect vegetation patterns along stressful environmental gradients.

Ratas, U.; Raukas, A.; Rivis, R., and Tavast, E., 2015. Aeolian activity on the northern coast of Lake Peipsi, north-eastern Estonia.

Lake Peipsi is one of the largest inland water bodies in Europe. In the geological past, it was much bigger, flooding vast areas to the north of the contemporary lake. In the proglacial lakes formed behind the retreating glacier, large amounts of sand and silt accumulated, providing source material for various aeolian deposits and landforms, such as coversand hillocks, blowouts, deflation hollows, foredunes, inland and coastal dunes, and wind-eroded plains. Because of land uplift they are of different age (from the Late Glacial up to the present) and structure. The oldest dunes in the area were formed in severe climatic conditions of the Younger Dryas and the Early pre-Boreal. Near the contemporary shoreline of Lake Peipsi, the rhythmically changing water level has strongly influenced the aeolian redistribution of sediments. Here specific “basket-trap” dunes were formed behind rather huge parabolic wind ditches, which developed at sites where the vegetation cover had been locally breached by wave erosion, ice action, or human influence. In different parts of individual dunes variations in grain size and mineral composition are slight, but regional differences are noteworthy. The northern coast of Lake Peipsi has a great recreational value.

Linhoss, A.C.; Kiker, G.; Shirley M., and Frank K., 2015. Sea-level rise, inundation, and marsh migration: simulating impacts on developed lands and environmental systems.

Sea-level rise is expected to affect natural and urban areas by shifting habitats and inundating infrastructure. To plan for a sustainable future, it is important to identify both human and ecological vulnerabilities to sea-level rise. Here, we simulate impacts to urban, developed lands and environmental systems from sea-level rise by analyzing land cover (surface cover) and land use (land purpose) in the Matanzas River study area in NE Florida. The Sea Level Affecting Marshes Model (SLAMM) simulated land-cover change through wetland migration under three sea-level rise scenarios. Parcel data, including land use classification and land valuation, was overlaid on the simulated, future land cover. Our analysis describes a 2- to 5-km-wide longitudinal band along the NE coast of Florida of expected land-cover change where sea-level rise will likely cause inundation and wetland migration. Under a 0.9-m scenario by 2100, 5,332 ha of land (5% of the study area) will be threatened by some type of land-cover change, and inundation was estimated to affect approximately US$177 million in present property value. The migration of wetlands out of current areas and into new areas is of particular concern because (1) those wetlands will have to keep pace with sea-level rise, and (2) accommodation space must be available for new wetlands to move into. Developed lands have the possibility of hindering up to 6% of the area that wetlands may migrate into. These methods and findings are important for sustainable planning under future climate change.

Schubert, J.E.; Gallien, T.W.; Majd, M.S., and Sanders, B.F., 2015. Terrestrial laser scanning of anthropogenic beach berm erosion and overtopping.

Anthropogenic berms are widely deployed to manage coastal flooding. The dynamic erosion of scraped berms exposed to waves and a rising tide in southern California was monitored with a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) on three occasions in February and March of 2012. An improved characterization of initial berm geometry and the dynamics of berm erosion was pursued to accurately predict the onset and impact of coastal flooding associated with berm erosion and overtopping. TLS is shown to yield a digital terrain model (DTM) with a vertical accuracy of ca. 3 cm, indicating it is an excellent source of data for initializing mechanistic and/or empirical models that could be used to predict the onset and rate of wave overtopping. Minimum scan point spacings required to achieve this level of accuracy are investigated and reported. Additionally, a dimensionless water level representing the fractional submergence of the berm is identified as a good predictor of cumulative berm erosion under the test conditions.

Romeu, M.A.R.; Fontoura, J.A.S., and Melo, E., 2015. Typical scenarios of wave regimes off Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil.

In this study, 30 years of sea state data, reconstructed by the wave generation model WWIII for the oceanic area, were used to investigate wave regimes in southern Brazil. By applying a splitting routine to the spectra generated by WaveWatch III (WWIII), each sea state was decomposed into its primary and secondary wave systems. Histograms of the wave height and period against the direction of incidence, constructed for the 30-year period, showed that the region possesses two major wave systems: seas from the E quadrant, and swells from the S quadrant. In a more detailed characterization, histograms constructed with 30 years of data were compared with annual histograms. and the results were used to identify the year that best represented the totality of the data. For the representative year identified, clusters analysis was applied, and six typical scenarios were found for the wave system off Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil: (1) E swells, (2) E seas, (3) W seas, (4) S seas, (5) S swells, and (6) SE ground swells. A seasonal analysis revealed that S swells are dominant in the autumn and winter, whereas E quadrant waves (ENE swells and ENE seas) predominate in summer and spring, with more swells in spring and more seas in summer.

Olivieri, M.; Spada, G.; Antonioli, A., and Galassi, G., 2015. Mazara del Vallo tide gauge observations (1906–16): Land subsidence or sea-level rise?

Tide gauge (TG) data constitute an invaluable tool for the interpretation of short- and long-term sea-level changes occurring in the Mediterranean Sea. The complex geophysical environment and the limited amount of sufficiently long records make the interpretation of local signals problematic because these are often affected by interlacing processes. Starting from newly disclosed TG records from the site of Mazara del Vallo (SW Sicily), we analyze simultaneously the time series available from other locations in Sicily across the beginning of the 20th century (Messina and Palermo). Despite the limited record length, we show that these observations provide new perspectives on the causes of the observed sea-level variations in the central Mediterranean region, and, in particular, they challenge previous tenets regarding the extent of land movements caused by the 1908 Messina Straits earthquake.

Spetter, C.A.; Popovich, C.A.; Arias, A.; Asteasuain, R.O.; Freije, R.H., and Marcovecchio, J.E., 2015. Role of nutrients in the phytoplankton development during a winter diatom bloom in a eutrophic South American estuary (Bahía Blanca, Argentina).

The Bahía Blanca Estuary is considered highly eutrophic. Long-term studies have shown that the winter–early spring bloom can be considered the development of a diatom assemblage with Thalassiosira curviseriata as the dominant species. Since 2003, several changes have been observed in the annual pattern of nutrients and phytoplankton. To assess the availability of nutrients and their relationship with phytoplankton development, nutrient variability was studied during a winter bloom in 2003 (April 22–September 4). Nitrite, nitrate, ammonium, phosphate, silicates, chlorophyll-a, phytoplankton abundance, particulate organic matter, and physicochemical parameters were measured in surface water at Cuatreros Port. In the Sauce Chico River mouth, we determined the concentration of nutrients to estimate the input of this river. The results of this study were compared with those of a previous usual diatom bloom from 2002. In 2003, the bloom was dominated by the Cyclotella sp. with high chlorophyll-a concentrations (26.5–40.4 μg L⁻¹). Thalassiosira curviseriata was present only at three sampling dates, reaching up to 19% of the total abundance. Mean values of dissolved oxygen, nitrate, oxygen saturation percentage, and salinity were significantly higher in 2003 than in 2002, while N:P ratios were significantly lower. Si was never limiting. A shift in the limiting nutrient between the years (N in 2003 and P in 2002) could have lead to a change in species dominance during the blooms. Results suggest that the nutrients levels in the coastal ecosystems at Cuatreros Port play an important role in the control of phytoplankton dynamics during the productive period and partially explain its interannual variability.

Smith, S.M. and Green, C., 2015. Sediment suspension and elevation loss triggered by Atlantic mud fiddler crab (Uca pugnax) bioturbation in salt marsh dieback areas of southern New England.

The effects of bioturbation on sediment suspension and elevation loss by the Atlantic mud fiddler crab, Uca pugnax (Smith), were investigated in this study. High densities of U. pugnax occur in unvegetated areas of Cape Cod salt marshes that have been denuded by the herbivorous Sesarma reticulatum (purple marsh crab). The hypothesis addressed in this study is that U. pugnax then causes sediment suspension and subsequent erosion. Anecdotal evidence suggests that unlike vegetated zones sediments are rapidly eroding from dieback areas, but the various mechanisms by which this is occurring are unclear. In this study, we focused on the role that U. pugnax might play in this process through experiments that assessed sediment suspension during rainfall events and flooding tides, as well as elevation changes. The results indicate that U. pugnax contributes to elevated sediment loads in the water column and that the suspended sediment is transported elsewhere, resulting in elevation lowering. The loss of vegetation through S. reticulatum herbivory has resulted in a cascading series of events, with one of the consequences being an elevated potential for sediment mobilization and erosion by U. pugnax bioturbation. This has consequences for vegetation recovery and overall marsh resiliency.

Jumnongsong, S.; Gallardo, W.G.; Ikejima, K., and Cochard, R., 2015. Factors affecting fishers' perceptions of benefits, threats, and state, and participation in mangrove management in Pak Phanang Bay, Thailand.

Mangrove ecosystems provide a variety of services to people living on the coasts, in particular fishers whose livelihoods depend on healthy stocks of fish and other marine products. Fishers' participation and their understanding about mangroves are vital in mangrove management. This research was conducted to identify the factors contributing to the fishers' perceptions of the mangrove resources and their participation in mangrove management. In this study, mangroves in Pak Phanang Bay in Thailand were assessed in terms of state (diversity, structure, and regeneration) using the point-centered quarter method and fishers' perceptions of mangrove benefits, threats, and state, and their participation in management was investigated using a questionnaire. Ordinal logistic regression revealed that fishers' perceptions of mangrove benefits, threats, and state differed by residence location. Mangrove-related training affected perceptions of benefit and state, and participation in mangrove management, whereas local group membership affected perceptions of threat. Monthly income was identified as an important factor for participation. The perception of benefit is more important for participation in mangrove management compared with the perception of threat and mangrove state. There were some inconsistencies between the perceptions of mangrove state and the field study results; thus, it is recommended that a program that adopts a participatory approach including mangrove monitoring by the villagers could improve perceptions and understanding of mangrove state. Information on the actual state of mangroves and knowledge, particularly on mangrove ecosystem services, should be disseminated to the community via mangrove-related training and local group activities to enhance participation in mangrove management.

Liu, X.J.; Gao, S., and Wang, Y.P., 2015. Modeling the deposition system evolution of accreting tidal flats: A case study from the coastal plain of central Jiangsu, China.

The evolution of an accreting tidal flat is controlled mainly by tidally induced mud and sand transport. To understand the dynamic processes related to the evolution patterns, a model, taking into account the mud and sand transport associated with spring–neap tidal cycles, is used to simulate the formation of the deposition system of accreting tidal flats on the coastal plain of central Jiangsu, China. Based on the model output and a comparison with the observations, the following conclusions are derived. First, the vertically fining upward trend of sediment grain size in the deposition system of the tidal flat has been reproduced by the modeling. Second, the thickness of the mud layer (i.e. the upper part of the tidal flat deposit, where the mud content is more than 50%) in this deposition system is mainly determined by sediment supply. Abundant sediment supply to the tidal flat will result in a high sedimentation rate, rapid shoreline progradation, and a large volume of mud deposit but small mud layer thickness. Finally, no positive correlation is found between the thickness of a mud layer and the tidal range based on an analysis of the data set obtained from a number of muddy coasts in the world. However, a large tidal range may enhance the proportion of sand in the deposition system.

Keysers, J.H.; Quadros, N.D., and Collier, P.A., 2015. Vertical datum transformations across the Australian littoral zone.

There is a growing demand in Australia for better information to assess the risks associated with sea-level rise and coastal inundation. Seamless elevation data across the littoral zone is an essential requirement for the assessment of coastal risks and the development of adaptation and mitigation strategies. Seamless coastal data products require the integration of topographic data with offshore bathymetric data. A prerequisite for the integration process is that the respective elevation data sets be related to the same vertical datum. This article discusses the development of a vertical datum transformation approach to facilitate the creation of seamless elevation data sets across the Australian littoral zone, with a focus on the challenges unique to Australia. Review of international projects, research into the relevant concepts, and an investigation of the data sets available in Australia led to the adoption of an ellipsoid-based transformation approach. Mean sea-level heights related to the ellipsoid and derived from coastal tide gauges were used to enhance a satellite altimetry–derived mean sea surface. Other tidal datums were modelled through hydrodynamic modelling, and the Australian Height Datum was achieved via Australia's current geoid model: AUSGeoid09. Although a transformation procedure has been developed, the current status and availability of Australian tide gauge data prevent the production of a suitably accurate and reliable vertical datum transformation software tool that provides full coverage of the Australian coast. To produce such a tool, Australia requires the collation of existing tide gauge data and metadata, a repository to store that data, an ellipsoid height survey of all tide gauges, and a denser network of tide gauges.

Griggs, G.B., 2015. Lost neighborhoods of the California coast.

Each coastal disaster is followed by the inevitable debates about whether rebuilding is the right decision. Hurricanes Sandy and Katrina are good examples, as were the damaging El Niño events along the California coast in 1982–83, 1997–98, and 2009–10. Coastlines globally have been migrating landward since the last Ice Age ended about 18,000 years ago, and all indications are that this trend will continue in the decades and centuries ahead, most likely at an increased pace as the rate of sea-level rise increases. Retreating from the shoreline is not a new approach, and there are many communities and neighborhoods along the coasts of the United States and elsewhere where relocation has occurred and where formerly developed parcels are now underwater. Documenting these lost neighborhoods and those that are in the process of disappearing today is important in providing a longer-term perspective of what we face as a state and as a nation. Coastlines are in constant flux, and with few exceptions, they are migrating inland, either gradually or more rapidly during extreme events. Although there are short-term or temporary approaches that have been used for decades to hold back the ocean, they all have their limits. Communities need to assess their vulnerabilities to future sea-level rise and begin to adapt or prepare for the inevitability of a changing shoreline.

Graziani, D.J. and Day, F.P., 2015. Thresholds of change in decomposition rate along a dune/swale transect on a Virginia barrier island.

The objective of the current study was to examine fine spatial scale variation in aboveground decomposition rate over a barrier island dune/swale gradient in relation to the ground-water-free surface, soil nitrogen, and associated ecosystem states in order to identify thresholds of process or state change. The litterbag study was conducted on the Virginia Coast Reserve-Long Term Ecological Research Site in Virginia, United States. Mean aboveground decay rate (yr⁻¹) ranged from 0.339 (upper dune) to 0.699 (marsh/lower dune transition). The upper dune, marsh, and lower dune (Morella thicket side) had the lowest aboveground decay rates. The marsh edge, marsh/lower dune transition and Morella thicket exhibited the highest decomposition rates. Our results did not suggest that soil N content was a good indicator of state change or system process rates, whereas, distance to ground water demonstrated a significant relationship with aboveground decay. Relatively small (approximately 0.2–0.4 m) increases or decreases in elevation affected decay rates and community state. Free-surface thresholds that cause state changes or shifts in ecosystem processes provide the capability to project changes prompted by sea-level rise or shifts in other free surfaces over entire landscapes. Our results suggest that the ground-water-free surface is a good candidate for making such projections.

Moore, G.E.; Gilmer, B.F., and Schill, S.R., 2015. Distribution of mangrove habitats of Grenada and the Grenadines.

Mangroves of Grenada and the Grenadines represent significant habitat within the regional context of the Eastern Caribbean. Losses of mangroves through storms, development, and climate change have negative impacts on critical ecosystem services. Estimates of mangrove area exist in the literature but do not fully reflect current conditions, effects of disturbance, and results of recovery; they also do not differentiate these areas by community types. Advances in imagery and remote sensing approaches allow higher-resolution resource mapping. We used remote sensing, image interpretation, and field verification techniques to provide current estimates of the extent and distribution of mangroves. Our results provide the greatest areal total of mangroves to date. Despite loss of mangroves in the recent past, we accounted for approximately 15% more hectares than estimated in the 1990s and 28% more than predicted by hypothetical models for 2005. The discrepancies between prior and current mapped areas are likely due to differences in mapping precision and incomplete surveys that omitted the smaller Grenadine islands but also reflect actual increases in cover from natural recovery and recruitment following historic storm events. Basin mangroves represented the greatest area, while riverine and scrub contributed the least. Fringe mangroves were moderately abundant but were composed of small, isolated patches with high vulnerability to coastal storms and limited opportunity for inland retreat. Documenting the presence and distribution of mangroves, and specifically mangrove community types, will be of value to conservation, restoration, and management planning in light of predicted sea level rise and climate change effects.

Batayneh, A.T.; Ghrefat, H.; Zumlot, T.; Elawadi, E.; Mogren, S.; Zaman, H.; Al-Taani, A.A.; Nazzal, Y., and Elwahaidi, M., 2015. Assessing of metals and metalloids in surface sediments along the Gulf of Aqaba coast, northwestern Saudi Arabia.

The Gulf of Aqaba in northwestern Saudi Arabia is among the world's most important areas in terms of marine diversity and economic potential. Its coastal area witnessed significant anthropogenic changes as a result of rapid economic development and urbanization during recent decades. To document the impacts of these changes on the local environment, the distribution of heavy metal and metalloid pollutants (Fe, Al, As, Cu, B, Zn, Ba, Cr, Pb, Mn, Hg, V, Co, Mo, Se, Sb, Cd, and Be) and their variations in the surface sediments were investigated. Based on average concentrations, the dominance is as follows: Fe > Al > As > Cu > B > Zn > Ba > Cr > Pb > Mn > Hg > V > Co > Mo > Se > Sb > Cd > Be. The results showed a strongly positive linear correlation among Ba, Cr, Pb, and V. The studied sediments' quality was assessed using the geoaccumulation index (Igeo), an enrichment factor (EF), and two other sediment testing criteria (China State Bureau of Quality and Technical Supervision, or CSBTS, and Canadian guidelines). Hg is the only element with a moderate-to-strong concentration in terms of the Igeo, exceeding the primary, secondary, and tertiary CSBTS criteria and the threshold and probable effect levels of the Canadian guidelines. As causes moderate pollution, because its presence in the sediments exceeds the threshold effect level of the Canadian guidelines. The EF results showed Hg as a strong pollutant metal in the surface sediments of the study area, followed by As and Cu metals.

Jung, Y.-H.; Yoon, K.-T.; Shim, W.-J., and Park, H.-S., 2015. Short-term variation of the macrobenthic fauna structure on rocky shores after the Hebei Spirit oil spill, west coast of Korea.

This study was conducted to determine the initial response, such as ecological status, to the disturbance in macrobenthic fauna on a rocky shore after an oil spill. Sites polluted with oil spilled during the Hebei Spirit accident on December 7, 2007, showed continuous decreases in species of the Bivalvia class, including Lasaea undulata and Mytilus galloprovincialis, and no gastropods were observed. In addition, at polluted sites, the cold-water barnacle Chthamalus challengeri and the common periwinkle were present in low densities, whereas they appeared relatively stable at control sites. In this study, the macrobenthic community structure was distinct between polluted sites and control sites because of differences in species composition and densities of dominant species. Therefore, it is believed that the oil spill accident could lead to mass mortalities of the major macrobenthic fauna in the study area, by smothering or reducing breeding activities or recruitment, and thereby altered rocky shore ecosystems.

Rossi-Santos, M.R., 2015. Oil industry and noise pollution in the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) soundscape ecology of the southwestern Atlantic breeding ground.

The present work aims to assess acoustic overlapping between the humpback whale song and anthropogenic sounds around oil and gas platforms through spectral description and frequency comparison. Whales were monitored systematically in northeastern Brazil (11° S, 37° W to 14° S, 38° W). Acoustic and behavioral data were collected from 2007 to 2009, focusing on humpback occurrence around oil platforms. Diverse anthropogenic noises were registered in a similar frequency range as recorded cetacean sounds, which suggests overlapping of acoustic niches. Noise pollution from oil and gas production may potentially affect this species' communication, with implications for distribution and behavior in their breeding area. This paper is the first report of acoustic overlapping of oil platforms and cetaceans in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean. Given increasing gas and oil exploitation, efforts to improve the development and use of these acoustic methods are recommended in order to mitigate impacts on the marine life.

Coch, N.K., 2015. Unique vulnerability of the New York–New Jersey Metropolitan Area to hurricane destruction.

Hurricanes making landfall in the New York–New Jersey Metropolitan Area (NYNJMA) are infrequent, but their effects are considerably greater than those of similar Saffir–Simpson categories in the South. Hurricanes that caused major damage hit the NYNJMA directly in 1821 and 1893, and the only major (Category 3+) U.S. hurricane to hit several major U.S. urban coastal centers was the Long Island–New England Hurricane of 1938. The destruction resulting from landfall of a northern hurricane is greater that of a similar Saffir–Simpson category storm in the South. This damage amplification is the result of both the different characteristics of northern hurricanes and the unique geographic, geologic, oceanographic, and demographic characteristics in the northeast United States. Northern hurricanes move two to three times faster, have enlarged wind fields, and have a mostly coast-normal track that carries their more devastating right side hundreds of kilometers inland. A review of historical hurricane landfalls in the NYNJMA shows how they greatly amplify the damage from hurricane winds, storm surge, and freshwater flooding. Past hurricane landfalls caused great damage when the region was far less settled and developed than today. The NYNJMA is now the most densely settled and developed hurricane-prone urban coastal region in the world, and hurricane landfall will result in damage and economic dislocation that will have national and international economic, as well as other, consequences.

Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W., and Stalter, R., 2015. Biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Paspalum vaginatum Sw.

Paspalum vaginatum Sw. is a warm temperate, subtropical, pantropical, stoloniferous, and rhizomatous grass that is an important species in brackish marshes, salt marshes, and occasionally on the margins of mangrove swamps. Also known as seashore paspalum, it tolerates salinity regimes ranging from freshwater to hypersalinity conditions of 50 ppt. Paspalum vaginatum is important in shoreline stabilization and enhances habitat restoration efforts. Numerous cultivars have been selected as turfgrasses for use in saline sites because this species can be irrigated with full-strength seawater.

Little, D.I. and Bullimore, B., 2015. Discussion of: McLaren, P., 2014. Sediment trend analysis (STA^®): Kinematic vs. dynamic modeling. Journal of Coastal Research 30(3), 429–437.

The first sediment trend analysis (STA) in the United Kingdom was of Milford Haven Waterway, in 1987. Its findings and recommendations have since been tested intensively in terms of physical, chemical, and biological field data and have not been found wanting in the high profile of a major oil and gas port located in an internationally important conservation area. This discussion summarizes a wide range of multidisciplinary evidence that supports the STA method and conclusions. The STA kinematic approach has helped to generate falsifiable hypotheses for further research of the coastal and estuarine processes in the waterway. The results also provide a robust framework for monitoring and managing its environment. The approach could be used in combination with dynamic modeling but without necessarily waiting on a detailed understanding of all the variables. This simple philosophy is illustrated by McLaren's timely reminder of two historic debates in the Earth sciences: the age of the Earth and continental drift. Some additional thoughts on these classic struggles are provided.