A focal, necrotic soft tissue mass was diagnosed on the left forelimb of an adult, wild, intact female bog turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii). Excisional biopsy revealed a soft tissue sarcoma, and a full limb amputation was performed. Because mesenchymal tumors are rarely reported in chelonians, this case demonstrates that neoplasia should be considered as a differential for subcutaneous masses even in wild turtles. This is the first report of a soft tissue sarcoma in the genus Glyptemys. To the authors' knowledge, this is only the second case report of a soft tissue sarcoma reported in the Order Testudines.

West Nile Virus (WNV) causes significant mortalities in captive-reared American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Alligators can amplify the virus, serve as a reservoir host, and represent a source of infection for humans. A killed WNV vaccine is commercially available for use in alligators. In 2014, a case of suspected WNV infection from an alligator farm in Louisiana revealed that tissues of previously vaccinated animals were positive for WNV by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), whereas nonvaccinated animals were negative. Further testing demonstrated that the RT-PCR could detect viral RNA in the vaccine product itself. Virus isolation was negative in the tissues and the vaccine. These findings suggest that the RT-PCR detects the viral RNA from the killed vaccine in the tissues.

Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis) are native to the West Indies and represent one of over 7,000 extant species of amphibians. Biochemical enzymes are often used as an aid in the diagnostic evaluation of many veterinary patients, including amphibians. Knowing the tissue of origin for these enzymes aids in interpretation. This study evaluated tissue specificity of eight different enzymes in the Cuban tree frog, including amylase, lipase, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT). Seven different tissues (liver, cardiac muscle, lung, kidney, skeletal muscle, gonad, and pancreas) were collected from five adult Cuban tree frogs for enzyme analysis. The results showed that CK and LDH enzymes were primarily derived from skeletal and cardiac muscles; ALT was primarily derived from kidney and liver; AST was primarily derived from liver, kidney, and skeletal and cardiac muscles; GGT was primarily derived from kidney; ALP was primarily derived from kidney and cardiac muscle; and lipase was primarily derived from liver. Amylase was found to be significantly highest in the plasma and did not have any other tissue specificity. The results of this pilot study show the majority of the tissue enzymes have some tissue specificity and that these results may be of use to clinicians attempting to interpret biochemistry enzyme concentrations from blood samples. However, follow-up studies that correlate blood and tissue concentrations of these enzymes are needed to determine their value.

The purpose of this study was to determine vitamin (A, D, E), mineral (cobalt, copper, molybdenum, manganese, iron, selenium, zinc), and plasma biochemistry concentrations in free-ranging, eastern massasauga rattlesnakes (EMR) (Sistrurus catenatus) in relation to age, sex, reproductive status, and season. Plasma samples were collected from 24 snakes post-brumation (April–May) in Michigan. Significant increases in weight and plasma vitamin E, iron, molybdenum, calcium, phosphorus, triglycerides, and cholesterol were detected in gravid compared to non-gravid females. Vitamin D synthesis from ultraviolet B radiation may be possible in EMR and requires further research. Gravid snakes appear to bioaccumulate molybdenum in tissues. Although the sample size and methodology did not meet ASVCP guidelines for establishing reference ranges, the data provide an important first step in elucidating the role of vitamin and trace minerals in relation to EMR health and reproduction. These data can be used to compare trends across free-ranging and zoo-managed EMR populations and may help to guide changes in husbandry and nutrition programs for the zoo-managed EMR.

A recovery plan was developed for the threatened spiny softshell turtle (Apalone spinifera) population in the province of Quebec, which included the implementation of a head-start program with the objective of increasing juvenile survival over the first winter. High mortality rates were observed during the first two years of the program (2014: 22.5% [7/31], 2015: 55.0% [22/40]). Mortalities for both years were associated with an unusually high occurrence of coelomitis consecutive to a confirmed (N = 11) or suspected (N = 4) gastro-duodenal perforation. Microscopically, the coelomitis consisted of serosal mesothesial cell hypertrophy, fibrinous to granulomatous inflammation, visceral adhesions, as well as the presence of bacterial colonies and alimentary particles. Marked dilation of the gastrointestinal tract associated with abundant food material, suggestive of a digestive impaction/ileus, was frequently observed with the coelomitis cases. During the second year of the program, the increase in the quantity of food offered and the substitution of freeze-dried Gammarus shrimp with larger and more abrasive sun-dried red shrimps (Solenocera melantho) were identified as potential risk factors for gastrointestinal perforations and could account for the increased mortality rate observed. Prospective dietary studies are warranted to establish optimal diet parameters in juvenile individuals from this species.

The objective of this study was to survey blood cultures from a healthy population of wild western ratsnakes (Pantherophis obsoletus). Fifteen healthy, adult, free-ranging western ratsnakes were collected from the grounds of the Oklahoma City Zoo in Oklahoma City, OK. Health assessments included examinations, whole body radiographs, complete blood cell counts, and plasma chemistry analyses. Blood samples were submitted for aerobic and anaerobic blood cultures. Blood cultures from 12 (80%) of 15 snakes were positive for bacteria. The most common bacteria isolated were Morganella morganii, Citrobacter freundii, and Proteus vulgaris. These results may support the possibility of an apparent normal microflora in the blood of healthy western ratsnakes.

Between 2008 and 2014, mechanical positive pressure ventilation (PPV) was used to manage 48 critically ill, cold-stunned sea turtles during their first week of treatment. Twenty-nine turtles had complete records for analysis and no ventilator complications, including 21 Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii), four loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta), and four green turtles (Chelonia mydas). Indications for PPV included poor responsiveness, bradypnea or apnea, bradycardia, and respiratory acidosis. Twenty (68.9%) turtles were successfully extubated, seven (24.1%) turtles died naturally during PPV, and two (7.0%) turtles were euthanized during PPV. Of the 20 turtles that were extubated, 11 (55%) survived over 24 h after extubation and were considered successfully weaned from the ventilator, but only four (20%) turtles survived to eventual release. Throughout PPV, improvements in respiratory, cardiovascular, and clinicopathologic status were variable, likely related to the degree of illness at presentation. On average, however, ventilation resulted in expected physical and physiologic improvements between the beginning and end of ventilation, including significant increases in activity, heart rate, venous pH and partial pressure of oxygen and decreases in venous partial pressure of carbon dioxide, potassium, and mortality prediction index score. Results of this study indicate that mechanical PPV is effective in improving the respiratory status of some moribund cold-stunned sea turtles; however, further refinement of the ventilation methods is recommended, and the prognosis remains poor to guarded for the most severely debilitated turtles.

Choanal swabs were collected three times at 2 wk intervals from 17 asymptomatic captive chelonians, eight Forsten's tortoises (Indotestudo forstenii) and nine Sulawesi forest turtles (Leucocephalon yuwonoi), to document individual Mycoplasma spp. shedding patterns. Four of the Forsten's tortoises and six of the Sulawesi forest turtles tested positive repeatedly for Mycoplasma spp. DNA using a PCR assay. Clarithromycin, a macrolide antibiotic, was administered orally to all animals at 20 mg/kg every 2 to 3 days for a total of 90 days. While no adverse effects were noted, this extended 3 month long course of clarithromycin failed to suppress Mycoplasma spp. shedding in all but one of the 10 Mycoplasma spp. PCR-positive animals.

The Class Reptilia is divided into four Orders: Chelonia, Crocodylia, Rhynchocephalia, and Squamata. The most diverse of these orders is the Squamata, which is further subdivided into Sauria (lizards), Amphisbaenia (amphisbaenians), and Ophidia (snakes). Snakes are a unique and very diverse group of reptiles that have become popular in zoological collections and in the pet trade. This popularity necessitates the veterinarian who treats reptiles to be familiar with snakes and their related medical conditions. Knowledge of the unique anatomy and physiology of these species is paramount for successful management of the ophidian patient. As with most reptilian patients, husbandry-related problems and infectious conditions are common. But as these conditions become less prevalent through proper husbandry and biosecurity, metabolic and degenerative disorders are beginning to be described more in snakes, including cardiovascular disorders. As reptilian medicine evolves, the responsible clinician will need to stay abreast of the growing knowledge of these disorders. This article is to serve as a literature review of cardiology as it applies to snakes.