Parasites have the potential to influence the population dynamics of mammalian hosts, either as a single devastating pathogen or as a community effect. Striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) are typically host to rabies, which often regulates population numbers. We assessed micro- and macroparasite dynamics in striped skunk populations in the absence of rabies, to determine if a single pathogen, or community, was responsible for a majority of skunk deaths. We monitored mortality due to pathogens, and prevalence of pathogens via serology and necropsy, in two populations of striped skunks in northern Illinois during 1998–2004. Transmissible pathogens requiring direct transmission (i.e., canine distemper virus, canine parvovirus) exhibited high annual variability in prevalence. In contrast, those pathogens employing a more indirect, environmental route of transmission (i.e., Leptospira interrogans and Toxoplasma gondii) appeared to exhibit relatively less annual variability in prevalence. Skunks were diagnosed with infections from an average of 4.08 (SD=2.52, n=32) species of endoparasites, with a range of 1–11. Macroparasite prevalence and intensity did not vary among seasons, or sex or age of host. Severe infections occurred with multiple parasite species, and patterns of aggregation suggested some parasite species, or more likely the parasite community, act as a limiting mechanism in skunk populations.

Free-ranging caribou and moose populations in some regions of Alaska undergo periodic declines in numbers. Caribou and moose are managed by the state as valuable resources for not only sustenance and subsistence, but also for cultural heritage. Incidence and prevalence of diseases that may impact herd health and recruitment from year to year are relevant to management decisions aimed to protect the long-term viability of these herds. Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii are two apicomplexan parasites that can cause neurologic disease and abortions in their intermediate hosts and less frequently cause disease in their definitive hosts. The definitive hosts of N. caninum and T. gondii are canids and felids, respectively, and prevalence in the environment is in part dependent on maintenance of the life cycle through the definitive hosts. Serum samples from caribou (Rangifer tarandus, n=453), wolf (Canis lupus, n=324), moose (Alces alces, n=201), black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus, n=55), coyote (Canis latrans, n=12), and fox (Vulpes vulpes, n=9) collected in Alaska were assayed for N. caninum– and T. gondii–reactive antibodies with an immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and a modified agglutination test (MAT), respectively. Seroprevalence of N. caninum was greater in caribou (11.5%) than in wolves (9.0%), moose (0.5%), or black-tailed deer (0%). Seroprevalence of T. gondii was greater in wolves (17.8%) than in caribou (0.4%), moose (0%), or black-tailed deer (0%). Seroprevalence of N. caninum and T. gondii were 16.7% and 0.0% in coyotes and 0.0% and 12.5% in fox, but small sample sizes prevented further analysis. Antibodies to N. caninum in young caribou compared to adult caribou suggest that vertical transmission may be an important component of new infections in Alaskan caribou. The spatial distribution of antibody-positive individuals across Alaska may reflect differences in frequency of definitive hosts and alteration of predation patterns among regions.

Plague, a flea-transmitted infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is a primary threat to the persistence of prairie dog populations (Cynomys spp.). We conducted a 3-yr survey (2004–2006) of fleas from Gunnison's prairie dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni) and their burrows in montane grasslands in Valles Caldera National Preserve in New Mexico. Our objectives were to describe flea communities and identify flea and rodent species important to the maintenance of plague. We live-trapped prairie dogs and conducted burrow sweeps at three colonies in spring and summer of each year. One hundred thirty prairie dogs and 51 golden-mantled ground squirrels (Spermophilus lateralis) were captured over 3,640 trap nights and 320 burrows were swabbed for fleas. Five flea species were identified from prairie dogs and ground squirrels and four were identified from burrow samples. Oropsylla hirsuta was the most abundant species found on prairie dogs and in burrows. Oropsylla idahoensis was most common on ground squirrels. Two colonies experienced plague epizootics in fall 2004. Plague-positive fleas were recovered from burrows (O. hirsuta and Oropsylla tuberculata tuberculata) and a prairie dog (O. hirsuta) in spring 2005 and summer 2006. Three prairie dogs collected in summer 2005 and 2006 had plague antibody. We found a significant surge in flea abundance and prevalence, particularly within burrows, following plague exposure. We noted an increased tendency for flea exchange opportunities in the spring before O. hirsuta reached its peak population. We hypothesize that the role of burrows as a site of flea exchange, particularly between prairie dogs and ground squirrels, may be as important as summer conditions that lead to buildup in O. hirsuta populations for determining plague outbreaks.

Bovine tuberculosis (bovine TB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis, has reemerged in northern Michigan, USA, with detections in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in 1994 and in cattle in 1998. Since then, significant efforts have been directed toward reducing deer densities in the area in the hopes of reducing the bovine TB prevalence rate in deer and eliminating spillover of the disease into cattle. Despite the success of the efforts to reduce deer densities, additional cattle herds have become infected. Other mammals can be infected with M. bovis, and some carnivores and omnivores had been found to be infected with the disease in northern Michigan, USA. We conducted a multiyear surveillance effort to detect bovine TB in wild species of mammals in the Michigan, USA, outbreak area. From 2002 to 2004, tissue samples from 1,031 individual animals of 32 species were collected, processed, and cultured for M. bovis. Only 10 (1.0%) were culture-positive for M. bovis (five raccoons [Procyon lotor], four opossums [Didelphis virginiana], and one grey fox [Urocyon cinereoargenteus]). We also found two raccoons and four opossums to be positive for Mycobacterium avium. We collected 503 environmental samples from cattle farms recently identified as bovine TB positive; none yielded positive M. bovis culture results. Finally, we used infrared cameras to document wildlife use of four barns in the area. Many avian and mammalian species of wildlife were observed, with raccoons being the most commonly observed species. This surveillance study identified no new wildlife species that should be considered significant reservoirs of bovine TB in the outbreak area in northern Michigan, USA. However, the relatively high, apparent bovine TB prevalence rates in some carnivorous and omnivorous species, their relatively long life spans, and their frequent use of barns, suggests that removal of raccoons, opossums, foxes, and coyotes (Canis latrans) should be considered when a newly infected farm is depopulated of cattle.

Cattle Egrets have a worldwide distribution, feed in proximity to cattle and other domestic animals, and often nest in large colonies in urban woodlots. Over a 3-yr period, nestlings from five Cattle Egret colonies from Central Texas, USA, were surveyed for salmonellosis. Prevalence of infection ranged from 29% to 95%. Seventeen Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotypes were isolated, of which the 4,5,12:i-monophasic serotype predominated in cultures of both the digestive tract and pooled spleen and liver. Of 11 4,5,12:i-monophasic isolates phage typed, eight were determinate type 193. The 4,5,12:i-monophasic isolates were susceptible to all antibiotics tested and were highly invasive in the day-old chick infection model. Microscopic lesions were found in the livers of Cattle Egrets with systemic infections with the 4,5,12:i-monophasic serotype, suggesting that infections with this serotype may often be fatal. Twenty-nine serotypes were identified in 179 S. enterica subsp. enterica isolates from horses admitted to the Texas A&M University Veterinary Teaching Hospital in 2 yr following the Cattle Egret study. The 4,5,12:i-monophasic serotype was not isolated from horses, but 12 serotypes were isolated from both horses and Cattle Egrets. The temporal distribution of the horse cases suggested that Cattle Egrets and horses may be exposed to similar sources of Salmonella, but provided no evidence of transmission between these two species. Similar conclusions were drawn when Cattle Egret isolates were compared to isolates from feedlot and dairy cattle from Texas and surrounding states. Given that the Cattle Egret 4,5,12:i-monophasic serotype was highly invasive and other isolates of this serotype have been associated with food poisoning, it is likely that Cattle Egret colonies pose a health risk to humans living near them.

Normal hematologic and blood chemistry values for clinical use and age-related changes are reported as reference values for the endangered Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus). Blood samples were obtained from 21 nestlings and 26 free-living subadults and adults. No significant differences were found between subadults and adults or between sexes for any of the studied parameters. Reference ranges have been established for Bearded Vulture nestlings (less than 3 mo of age) and for free-living Bearded Vultures, with subadult and adult data combined without affecting clinical interpretation. Some reference values for the parameters reported in this study are similar to those previously described for vultures and other raptor species, although creatine phosphokinase and lactate dehydrogenase activities were higher than those reported for birds of prey. Significant age-related differences were identified in urea, uric acid, triglycerides, total serum protein, inorganic phosphorus, and magnesium concentrations, as well as aspartate aminotransferase, creatine phosphokinase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, and lipase activities (P<0.05). Additionally, significant age-related differences were noted in red and white blood cell counts, packed cell volume, hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, fibrinogen level, and heterophils, lymphocytes, and eosinophils (P<0.005). The results obtained from this study provide reference ranges that will be useful for evaluating the pathologic conditions and general health of Bearded Vulture populations and reveal the existence of important age-related differences in the species.

Yellow-billed Magpies (Pica nuttalli, Corvidae) are found exclusively in central California and have experienced alarming West Nile virus (WNV)–associated mortality since 2004. The first reported case of WNV in the species was reported in July 2004. Subsequently, 81% (304/374) of dead magpies submitted that year to the California Department of Health Services Dead Bird Surveillance Program were WNV positive by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test. We studied 43 magpie carcasses collected in 2004 and observed distinctive lesions in 24 birds that tested positive for WNV. Lesions included vasculitis and necrosis, and organs affected included brain, heart, liver, and gastrointestinal tract. From the severity of lesions observed, we suspect that a rapid onset of morbidity and mortality occurs with the Yellow-billed Magpie. Examination of bird survey data indicates that Yellow-billed Magpie abundance declined coincidentally with the onset of WNV in California. The home range and habitat of the species are nested within known areas of WNV transmission. Yellow-billed Magpies may be at risk of a decline and population bottleneck. Observations and experience with the Yellow-billed Magpie and WNV may provide insights for other endangered corvids that have not yet been exposed to WNV, including the Hawaiian Crow (Corvus hawaiiensis) and Island Scrub Jay (Aphelocoma insularis).

The objective of this study was to characterize pathologic changes associated with experimental infection of harp seals (Phoca groenlandica) with the lungworm Otostrongylus circumlitus (Metastrongyloidea: Crenosomatidae). The leukocyte differential cell count in samples obtained by unguided bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and the intensity of the histologic lesions in the lungs were assessed in seven harp seals experimentally exposed to 300 infective, third-stage O. circumlitus larvae. Seven unexposed harp seals were used as controls. First-stage larvae were observed in the feces of three of the seven exposed seals at 38, 42, and 45 days postexposure (dpe). Adult nematodes were found in the right primary bronchi of two of these three seals at necropsy 53 dpe. Fifty-six BALs were performed on the 14 seals. No statistical difference was observed between the exposed and control seals and among the four sampling times in percentage of neutrophils and macrophages in the BAL fluid. A significant difference was observed between the exposed and control seal groups in the percentage of eosinophils (P<0.0001), the count of eosinophils having increased by a factor of 70.4 in exposed seals. Significant statistical differences were observed between exposed and control seals in intensity of interstitial inflammation (P=0.001), bronchitis (P=0.02), bronchiolitis (P=0.04), alveolitis (P=0.03), and interstitial granulomatous inflammation (P=0.04). Our findings showed that harp seals are susceptible to infection with O. circumlitus. However, parasitic infections were transient and of low intensity, at least under our experimental conditions.

We examined the gross and microscopic pathology and distribution of sea turtles that were landed as bycatch from the Hawaii, USA–based pelagic longline fishery and known to be forced submerged. Olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) composed the majority of animals examined, and hook-induced perforation of the esophagus was the most common gross lesion followed by perforation of oral structures (tongue, canthus) and of flippers. Gross pathology in the lungs suggestive of drowning was seen in 23 of 71 turtles. Considering only the external gross findings, the pathologist and the observer on board the longline vessel agreed on hook-induced lesions only 60% of the time thereby illustrating the limitations of depending on external examination alone to implicate hooking interactions or drowning as potential cause of sea turtle mortality. When comparing histology of drowned turtles to a control group of nondrowned turtles, the former had significantly more pulmonary edema, hemorrhage, and sloughed columnar epithelium. These microscopic changes may prove useful to diagnose suspected drowning in sea turtles where history of hooking or netting interactions is unknown.

Sin Nombre virus (SNV), one of at least 45 hantaviruses described worldwide, is hosted by the deer mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus, a common species throughout most of North America. Herein, we describe general life-history characteristics of deer mice and the ways in which these factors relate to the incidence of SNV infections among populations of this host species in and around Portland, Oregon. In total, 3,175 deer mice were captured from October 2002 to September 2005. Transmission of SNV appears to be associated with male breeding behaviors, as more males and adults were infected than expected by capture rate; spring and summer had the highest infection prevalence, as well as scrotal male captures. Wounding rates between infected and uninfected deer mice were not different in any age or sex class. Capture rates were significantly and positively related to the interaction of temperature departure from normal, total precipitation, and number of clear days from two seasons previous (P=0.029), while infection prevalence was significantly and negatively related to the capture rate of juveniles from two seasons previous (P=0.029).

Brucella abortus is the causative agent of brucellosis, a disease enzootic in populations of free-ranging elk (Cervus elaphus) and bison (Bison bison) in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, USA. We define the distribution of the disease in elk throughout Wyoming, USA, using three epidemiologic/geographic classifications based on winter-foraging opportunity. Antibody prevalence for >3,300 yearling and adult, female elk, sampled from supplemental feedgrounds in western Wyoming, USA, since 1985, was 21.9%. Surveillance of nearly 3,800 winter free-ranging, adult, female elk, sampled from herd units adjacent to feedgrounds from 1991 to 2008, indicated a total antibody prevalence of 3.7%. In contrast, none of the 1,930 male and female elk sampled from 1991 to 2008 in herd units distant from feedgrounds in Wyoming, USA, demonstrated exposure to B. abortus. In comparison to elk, bison had a higher incidence of brucellosis. Surveillance of 321 cow bison harvested within the Absaroka and Jackson bison herds in western Wyoming, USA, from 1992 to 2008 yielded an antibody prevalence of 63.9%.

To determine whether infectious diseases might have contributed to the present-day decline of northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus), preweaned pups (n=2,735), subadult males (n=98), and adults (n=179) were examined postmortem from 1986 to 2006 on St. Paul Island, Alaska. Gross necropsy findings and histologic lesions were used to determine causes of death. Five general categories of mortality were identified for pups: emaciation (1,454 pups, 53%), trauma (497 pups, 18%), perinatal mortality (516 pups, 19%), infectious diseases (82 pups, 3%), and miscellaneous causes (186 pups, 7%). A condition of unknown etiology characterized by multifocal necrotizing myopathy and cardiomyopathy was found in 92 pups. Thirty-three congenital anomalies were identified in 49 pups, including a rare multicentric ganglioneuro-blastoma. General linear models were used to examine change in pup mortality and condition (i.e., pup mass) over time. The prevalence of perinatal mortality appeared to increase during the study and relative to past reports. Trauma and infectious conditions appeared to decrease slightly from 1986 to 2006. Although relatively stable during this investigation, emaciation was greater than that reported for past studies. Emaciated pups weighed less than expected during 1988, 1996, and 2004 and more than expected during 1987, 1989, 1990, and 1994 (P≤0.003). Average annual weights for all other categories of mortality did not change significantly from 1986 to 2006. Fatal conditions for subadult males included hyperthermia, blunt trauma, entanglement, and bite wounds; nonfatal conditions included seizures, orange discoloration of the blubber, neoplasia, and parasitism. Causes of mortality for most adults included bite wounds with cellulitis and secondary infections, pulmonary edema, dystocia, blunt trauma, and neoplasia. We found no evidence to implicate infectious diseases as a cause in the recent decline of northern fur seals.

Prevalence of antibodies reactive to canine distemper virus (CDV), canine adenovirus type 1 (CAV-1), Leptospira interrogans serovars Canicola and Icterohaemorrhagiae, and Toxoplasma gondii were examined in free-ranging Scandinavian canids. Sampling included 275 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from mainland Norway, 60 arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) from the high-arctic islands of Svalbard, and 98 wolves (Canis lupus) from the joint Swedish-Norwegian population. Methods used included virus neutralization tests for CDV and CAV-1, a microscopic agglutination test for L. interrogans, and a direct agglutination test for T. gondii. High prevalence of antibody to CAV-1 was identified in red foxes (59.6%), wolves (67.7%), and arctic foxes (37.8%). The prevalence of antibody to CDV varied between 9.6% and 12.3% in the three species. Antibodies to L. interrogans serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae were found in 9.9% of the red foxes and 8.4% of the wolves sampled, whereas no antibody-positive arctic foxes were found. All animals were antibody-negative for L. interrogans serovar Canicola. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 66.9, 51.7, and 18.6% of red foxes, arctic foxes and wolves, respectively. Significantly more adults than juveniles were antibody-positive for CDV in red foxes and arctic foxes, for CAV-1 in wolves, and for T. gondii in red foxes and wolves. There was a general tendency for adult female red foxes to have a higher prevalence of antibodies for CDV than adult males; this difference was statistically significant. The results indicate that CDV and CAV-1 are endemic in red foxes and wolves on the Scandinavian mainland and in arctic foxes on Svalbard. Although infection with L. interrogans serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae was relatively common in wild canids on mainland Norway, it was not found on Svalbard, where the maintenance host (Rattus norvegicus) is absent. All three species are commonly exposed to T. gondii through predation on infected intermediate hosts.

There are nine serotypes of avian paramyxovirus (APMV), including APMV-1, or Newcastle disease virus. Although free-flying ducks and geese have been extensively monitored for APMV, limited information is available for species in the order Charadriiformes. From 2000 to 2005 we tested cloacal swabs from 9,128 shorebirds and gulls (33 species, five families) captured in 10 states within the USA and in three countries in the Caribbean and South America. Avian paramyxoviruses were isolated from 60 (0.7%) samples by inoculation of embryonating chicken eggs; isolates only included APMV-1 and APMV-2. Two isolates (APMV-2) were made from gulls and 58 isolates (APMV-1 [41 isolates] and APMV-2 [17 isolates]) were made from shorebirds. All of the positive shorebirds were sampled at Delaware Bay (Delaware and New Jersey) and 45 (78%) of these isolates came from Ruddy Turnstones (Arenaria interpres). The APMV-1 infection rate was higher among Ruddy Turnstones compared with other shorebird species and varied by year. Avian paramyxovirus-2 was isolated from two of 394 (0.5%) Ruddy Turnstones at Delaware Bay in 2001 and from 13 of 735 (1.8%) Ruddy Turnstones during 2002. For both APMV-1 and APMV-2, infection rates were higher among Ruddy Turnstones sampled on the south shore of Delaware Bay compared to north shore populations. This spatial variation may be related to local movements of Ruddy Turnstones within this ecosystem. The higher prevalence of APMV in Ruddy Turnstones mirrors results observed for avian influenza viruses in shorebirds and may suggest similar modes of transmission.

Between 1990 and 2007, carcasses of opportunistically collected short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis; n=238), Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus; n=167), and common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus; n=15) were examined for parasites and life history data. Three species of lung nematodes (Halocercus lagenorhynchi, Stenurus ovatus, Pharurus alatus) were identified in surface nodules, subsurface lesions, or airways. Nematode burdens were light to heavy and, in many cases, would have compromised the dolphins' health. The number of dolphins infected was related to species, year, season, age class, and geographic region. Nematodes were found in all three species but were more prevalent in short-beaked common dolphins (mean annual prevalence=26%) than in bottlenose dolphins (12%). There was a significant increase in prevalence of nematodes in short-beaked common dolphins in 2005–06 (63%) compared to 1990–2004 (14%), with a peak in April–June. More young short-beaked common dolphins were infected than subadults and adults and, during the unusual infection event, there were more dependent calves (<130 cm) than juveniles. There were also more infections in dependent bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops spp.) calves but no increase in overall prevalence was detected during 2005–06. Because neonates of both short-beaked common dolphins and bottlenose dolphins were infected, mother-to-calf transmission is suspected for these species in South Australia. Numbers of infections in short-beaked common dolphins were higher in Gulf St Vincent than elsewhere in South Australia, particularly in 2005–06. The cause of the unusual infection event in short-beaked common dolphins is unknown. We discuss the influence of dolphin diet, life history, and external factors.

Laysan Ducks are endemic to the Hawaiian archipelago and are one of the world's most endangered waterfowl. For 150 yr, Laysan Ducks were restricted to an estimated 4 km² of land on Laysan Island in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. In 2004 and 2005, 42 Laysan Ducks were translocated to Midway Atoll, and the population increased to approximately 200 by 2007. In August 2008, mortality due to botulism type C was identified, and 181 adult, fledgling, and duckling carcasses were collected from August to October. Diseased birds were found on two islands within Midway Atoll at multiple wetlands; however, one wetland contributed most carcasses. The epidemic was discovered approximately 14–21 days after the mortality started and lasted for 50 additional days. The details of this epidemic highlight the disease risk to birds restricted to small island populations and the challenges associated with managing newly translocated endangered species. Frequent population monitoring for early disease detection and comprehensive wetland monitoring and management will be needed to manage avian botulism in endangered Laysan Ducks. Vaccination may also be beneficial to reduce mortality in this small, geographically closed population.

Removal of bird carcasses has been advocated for management of Clostridium botulinum outbreaks on lakes in North America because a reduction in density of toxin-laden maggots produced within bird carcasses is assumed to enhance survival of healthy birds. This inverse relationship between carcass density and survival has been reported in controlled studies with Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) but has not been verified in wild ducks during naturally occurring botulism outbreaks. Therefore, we radio-marked 204 molting Mallards on seven lakes in western Canada during July–August 1999–2000, and monitored their survival daily for 30 days. Carcass searches were conducted simultaneously at 90 matched locations for freshly dead and randomly selected live radio-marked Mallards. Carcass density (carcasses/ha) averaged about two times greater at dead than at live duck locations (x̄=12.4, SE=1.2 vs. x̄=5.0, SE=0.7). Predicted risk of mortality increased rapidly with carcass density (case-control logistic regression: model-averaged β_density=0.167, unconditional SE=0.062). Mallards exposed to 5–11 and >11 carcasses/ha were 3.5 and 13 times more likely to die, respectively, than were Mallards inhabiting carcass-free areas. Mortality risk was more closely related to density of maggot-laden carcasses than to maggot-free carcass densities. Our results are consistent with the assumption that reducing carcass density could enhance survival. However, we caution that survival rates may remain low on lakes in which areas with high carcass densities persist due to incomplete carcass removal.

Respiratory depression is a common side effect when opioids are used to immobilize wildlife. Serotonergic ligands have the potential to reverse opioid-induced respiratory depression. We examined whether any of three serotonergic ligands could reverse this depression in etorphine-immobilized (0.07 mg/kg) impala (Aepyceros melampus). The study took place in September–December 2007. Impala received intravenous injections of metoclopramide (10 mg/ kg, n=6), buspirone (0.05 mg/kg, n=8), pimozide (1 mg/kg, n=8), doxapram (1 mg/kg, n=6), and control solutions on separate occasions. During the immobilization, partial pressures of oxygen (PaO₂, mmHg) and carbon dioxide (PaCO₂, mmHg), respiratory rate (breaths/min), ventilation (l/ min), peripheral O₂ saturation (%), tidal volume (l), and respiratory exchange ratio were measured before and after injection of the experimental drugs. Etorphine immobilization caused respiratory depression and hypoxia (mean±SD, PaCO₂=51±2 mmHg, PaO₂=40±3 mmHg). Metoclopra-mide and buspirone, but not pimozide, attenuated the hypoxic effects of etorphine; 3 min after injection, metoclopramide increased the PaO₂ by 7.=66.3 mmHg and buspirone by 666.6 mmHg (F=3.9, P=0.02). These effects were similar to those of doxapram (8±7 mmHg, F=3.9; P>0.05). Neither metoclopramide nor buspirone significantly increased ventilation, but they increased PaO₂ by significantly improving the alveolar-arterial oxygen partial pressure gradient (A-a gradient, F=1.4, P<0.05), indicating improved oxygen diffusion. Metoclopramide and buspirone transiently improved blood oxygenation of opioid-immobilized impala, probably by improving ventilation-perfusion ratios, without reversing catatonic immobilization.

There is a lack of information on mineral requirements of free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). In addition, mineral deficiencies or excesses may play a role in the development of parasitism/malnutrition syndrome. We measured hepatic mineral values in apparently healthy white-tailed deer from two sites in Virginia, USA, as well as in deer with presumptive parasitism/malnutrition syndrome during 2005–2007. Deer with presumptive parasitism/malnutrition syndrome that were displaying signs of emaciation and chronic diarrhea had significantly higher mean hepatic levels of magnesium (Mg) and zinc (Zn) compared with healthy deer. Healthy deer in our study from northern Virginia, USA (i.e., Fairfax, Fauquier, Loudoun, and Prince William counties) had significantly lower mean hepatic selenium (Se) levels compared with deer from Nottoway County, Virginia, USA, which is 200 km distant. Healthy deer from northern Virginia, USA, also had significantly lower mean hepatic cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo) levels. Adult deer had significantly higher mean levels of hepatic iron (Fe) compared with fawns. In addition, male deer had significantly higher mean hepatic Co levels compared with female deer. The significantly higher mean (±SD) level of Zn in sick deer from northern Virginia, USA (78.7±54.9 μg/g versus 35.8±7.4 μg/g in healthy deer) is potentially clinically significant, although no signs consistent with Zn poisoning were observed. All deer in our study from northern Virginia, USA, had marginal or deficient levels of Cu (mean±SD=27.4±18.3 μg/g) and Se (mean=0.08±0.03 μg/g), which may be predisposing this population to the development of parasitism/malnutrition syndrome.

Kea (Nestor notabilis) are high country parrots endemic to New Zealand. The foraging behavior and inquisitive nature of Kea have led to incidences of foreign substance ingestion, including lead. Between April 2006 and November 2007, 38 Kea in Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand, were captured, and blood was sampled for blood lead analysis. All birds sampled had detectable blood lead with concentrations ranging from 0.028 mg/l to 3.43 mg/l (mean±SE, 0.428±0.581 mg/l). A retrospective analysis of necropsy reports and archived samples from 15 wild Kea from various South Island locations also was carried out. Seven of these birds (five from the Aoraki/Mount Cook area) died with clinical signs consistent with lead toxicosis and had liver and/or kidney lead levels reported to cause lead toxicity in other avian species. All seven of these birds also had lead inclusions (Ziehl-Neelson positive intranuclear inclusion bodies) in the renal tubular epithelial cells. These are considered diagnostic of lead toxicity in other species. This study showed that lead exposure is ubiquitous in the sampled population and may be an important contributing factor in Kea morbidity and mortality. As a result of these findings, lead abatement in areas frequented by Kea is being initiated.

During red tide bloom events, the marine diatom Pseudo-nitzschia produces the toxin domoic acid (DA), which has been associated with stranding and mortality events involving California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris). In addition to these well-documented DA-induced neurotoxic events, there is increasing concern that DA may exert chronic effects, such as immunomodulation, which may potentially increase an individual's susceptibility to a number of opportunistic infections following nonlethal exposure. We investigated the effects of DA on innate (phagocytosis and respiratory burst) and adaptive (mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation) immune functions with the use of peripheral blood leukocytes collected from healthy California sea lions and southern sea otters upon in vitro exposure to 0 (unexposed control), 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0, 10, and 100 μM DA. Domoic acid did not significantly modulate phagocytosis or respiratory burst in either species. For California sea lions, DA significantly increased ConA-induced T-lymphocyte proliferation upon exposure to DA concentrations ranging from 0.0001 to 10 μM, resulting in a nonlinear dose-response curve. There was no effect on lymphocyte proliferation at the highest concentration of DA tested. No effects on lymphocyte proliferation were observed in southern sea otters. Importantly, the in vitro DA concentrations affecting T-cell proliferation were within or below the range of DA in serum measured in free-ranging California sea lions following natural exposure, suggesting a risk for immunomodulation in free-ranging animals. Understanding the risk for immunomodulation upon DA exposure will contribute in the health assessment and management of California sea lions and southern sea otters, as well as guide veterinarians and wildlife rehabilitators in caring for and treating afflicted animals.

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae is an important pathogen of the porcine respiratory tract. Subclinically and chronically infected pigs may enter a permanent carrier state, harboring A. pleuropneumoniae in lungs or tonsils. Despite the enormous role of A. pleuropneumoniae in domestic swine production, no published data about prevalence and distribution of A. pleuropneumoniae infections in wild boars (Sus scrofa) are available. Antibodies against A. pleuropneumoniae have been detected in serum of wild boars from Slovenia. The aim of the present study was to evaluate A. pleuropneumoniae infection status in wild boars in Germany. Tissue samples from lungs and tonsils of 531 wild boars from 52 hunts during the hunting seasons 2004–05 to 2006–07 were examined for A. pleuropneumoniae by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Although gross pathologic lesions typical for pleuropneumonia were not detected, 35.8% of the wild boars were PCR-positive. Tonsils were involved in 94.3% and lungs in 15.5%. Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae infection prevalence increased with age and body weight. Further research is needed to understand the involvement of different A. pleuropneumoniae serotypes and to understand the interrelationship of A. pleuropneumoniae infection between wild boars and domestic pigs.

A subcutaneous melanocytic tumor was diagnosed during the rehabilitation period of a stranded 7-mo-old common seal (Phoca vitulina) suffering from parasitic bronchopneumonia. The clinical signs of the seal as well as the histopathology of the tumor are described. This is the first time a melanocytic tumor has been diagnosed in a common seal. The mass was identified as a low-grade dermal melanoma.

Clinical signs of a disease locally referred to as “unsteady gait disease” for the Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) were observed in the Qinghai Lake watershed area, China. The objective of this study was to determine if there was a relationship between the disease and copper (Cu) deficiency. Chemical examinations showed that Cu concentrations in soil and forage samples were similar from areas where gazelles were affected and unaffected. However, concentrations of sulfur (S) and molybdenum (Mo) in the soil and forage samples from the affected area were significantly higher than those from the unaffected areas (P<0.01). Copper concentrations in samples of blood, hair, and liver from the affected gazelles were significantly lower than those in unaffected animals (P<0.01). Supplementation of CuSO₄ in affected gazelles improved their appetite and vigor. We conclude that the disorder of Tibetan gazelles was caused by Cu deficiency, attributable to the high S and Mo content in forage.

Eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) are one of the most abundant large macropodids sharing the landscape with humans. Despite this, little is known about the prevalence of Leptospira carriage within this species and the role that they may partake in the transmission of this disease in Australia. The sera of 87 free-ranging eastern grey kangaroos, captured in the Warragamba Catchment Area, Sydney, Australia, from June 2004 to November 2006, were screened against a reference panel of 22 Leptospira serovars using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). Leptospiral antibodies were detected in 47% (41 of 87) of serum samples collected. Leptospira weilii Topaz, a newly emergent serovar in Australia, was detected in all seropositive kangaroos (41 of 41; 100%). The sex and tailfat body condition index of kangaroos appeared to have no significant effect on the exposure to the disease. This serologic-based study is the first reported for L. weilii serovar Topaz in New South Wales, to our knowledge, having previously been isolated only in humans and two other animal species (bovine and long-nosed bandicoot [Perameles nasuta]) in Western Australia and Queensland. The potential role of eastern grey kangaroos in the maintenance and zoonotic spread of the disease to livestock and humans is discussed.

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) is one of the world's most endangered marine mammals. The largest population is located mainly throughout the Aegean and Ionian islands and along the coastline of southern continental Greece. We report the findings of a necropsy and discuss their potential importance to the conservation of the species. The adult female monk seal appeared to be in a good nutritional state. The main necropsy findings were injuries consistent with a violent and sudden death, including three round wounds on the ventral surface of the body and several hematomas, as well as a decomposing male fetus in the uterus. Two nematodes were found in the right ventricle of the heart; no abnormalities were observed in the lungs, pulmonary vessels, or heart. The nematodes were identified as Acanthocheilonema spirocauda. This is the first report of infection of the Mediterranean monk seal with A. spirocauda, even though this is the most common heartworm found in most pinnipeds worldwide. This parasite should be considered in health care monitoring projects of this endangered species.

Absence of blood parasites in birds occurring in polar regions is believed to be a common phenomenon but only few surveys have been conducted on truly polar bird species. We examined blood parasites in a seabird with an exclusively high-Arctic breeding distribution, the Little Auk (Alle alle). Polymerase chain reaction was used to detect haemosporidians and traditional optical microscopy was used to detect a wider range of haematozoans in birds breeding on Svalbard (Norway). No blood parasites were found among 100 birds examined. This finding confirms scarcity of haematozoa in polar regions and provides baseline data for the Little Auk.

A group of 202 tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) was brought into captivity due to habitat destruction. Half of these animals died, over two mo, showing generalized hemorrhages compatible with an infectious disease, but an etiologic agent was not determined. Encysted metacercarial stages of trematodes within the skeletal musculature, coelomic cavity, and subcutaneous space were additional necropsy findings. One salamander had scoliosis and multiple skin nodules. A radiograph showed no skeletal abnormality to explain the scoliosis; however, numerous round nodules were more radiodense than the surrounding tissue. A presumptive diagnosis of generalized trematodiasis was made, yet the salamander did not improve after a course of praziquantel and subsequently died. Necropsy revealed massive, encysted trematode infection. Histologic examination revealed marked multifocal intramuscular, subcutaneous, and coelomic trematodiasis with associated necrosis and inflammation. Based on gross morphology, the trematode was identified as a member of the genus Clinostomum.

Individuals of three species of cervids, with varying degrees of alopecia, were examined for ectoparasites: Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) in Colorado and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in South Dakota. Hair follicle mites were recovered and identified as Demodex kutzeri, a species originally described from the European red deer (Cervus elaphus, from Austria) and the sika deer (Cervus nippon pseudaxis, captive in Germany). These findings expand the geographic range of D. kutzeri to North America and extend its host range to include the genus Odocoileus. Thus, the host range for D. kutzeri spans two subfamilies of cervids. Additionally, D. kutzeri was identified in material from a white-tailed deer collected in South Carolina in 1971, indicating this parasite has been present, but unrecognized, on US cervids for some time.

The Coscoroba Swan (Coscoroba coscoroba) is an unusual member of the Anatidae found in South America, from the Falkland Islands and Tierra del Fuego through Chile and Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay as far north as Mato Grosso do Sul in Brazil. The species is not threatened globally, but some local populations have declined and the status of others is unknown. The objective of this study was to quantify the plasma chemistry of a wild population of Coscoroba Swans in southern Brazil during their molting period. We captured 12 chicks, 14 juveniles, and 31 mature birds. The following blood parameters were measured: glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, uric acid, creatin-kinase, aspartate amino transferase, alanine-aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, and pancreatic amylase. Significant differences between males and females were not observed for any of the parameters, and only the levels of alkaline phosphatase differed significantly among age groups.

The potential anesthetic effect of ketamine in combination with xylazine was examined in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Anesthesia (indicated by cessation of voluntary swimming and loss of responses to pinching the skin with forceps and pricking the tail with a needle) was induced by mixing 14.4 ml of ketamine (5% solution), or 11.4 ml of xylazine (2% solution), or both, in 10 l of water containing 10 fish/group. Xylazine alone induced sedation and anesthesia in 5–12.3 min with a mean duration of 7.3 min. Ketamine alone induced similar effects in 7.2–9.7 min for an average of 24.2 min. Combined xylazine and ketamine took longer (14–22.8 min) to induce sedation and anesthesia, but the duration was longer (42.7 min). The respiratory rates of anesthetized fish significantly decreased in all treatments when compared to controls. In conclusion, the combination of xylazine-ketamine was found to induce smooth anesthesia in the common carp for a time sufficient for common clinical and surgical interventions.

From May 1997 to October 2000, 49 Sotalia guianensis (tucuxi dolphin) incidentally caught in fishing nets or stranded in São Paulo (SP) and Paraná (PR) states in Brazil were necropsied. In total, 17 lungs, 35 stomachs, and 30 intestines were analyzed. Contents were washed through a sieve (mesh, 150 mm) and examined under a stereoscopic microscope for parasites. Histopathologic analyses were performed in the lungs of five infected dolphins. The nematode Halocercus brasiliensis was found in 88% of all lungs examined, inducing moderate-to-severe pneumonia. Braunina cordiformis, Anisakis sp., and acantho-cephalans were found in the stomachs. The trematode Synthesium tursionis was the only parasite found in the intestines, and it was identified in 73% of the animals necropsied. No macroscopic lesions were seen due to parasites in the stomachs and intestines analyzed.

We assessed West Nile virus (WNV) antibody prevalence in American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) in southern Quebec by sampling 152 birds during the 2003–05 breeding seasons. We analyzed the dependence of antibody prevalence on age group, year, and gender; a significant relationship was detected only between age (adults vs. nestlings) and antibody prevalence. Furthermore, reproductive success did not appear to be linked with the prevalence of anti–WNV antibodies in this population.

Serum samples from 128 wild vicuñe; as (Vicugna vicugna) were tested for antibodies (Ab) to rotavirus (RV), bovine parainfluenza virus 3 (BPIV-3), bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1), bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV-1), foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), bluetongue virus (BTV), equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1), and influenza A virus equine (EIV). Samples were collected in Cieneguillas Province of Jujuy, in northern Argentina. Feces from 44 vicuñe; as were also collected to investigate RV shedding. Llamas (Lama glama) and domestic cattle (Bos taurus) from the area studied also were tested for antibodies to these viruses. Antibodies against RV (100%) and BPIV-3 (37%) were detected in the vicuñe; as sampled. No RV antigen was detected in any of the fecal samples tested. One vicuñe; a was positive for Ab to BHV-1 (0.8%) and another for BVDV-1 (0.8%). The Ab prevalences detected in llamas were: 100% (16/16) for RV, 47% (8/17) for BPIV-3, 17.6% (3/17) for BHV-1, and 5.9% (1/17) for BVDV-1. However, domestic cattle had high antibody prevalences for RV and BPIV-3, 100% (13/13) and 73% (11/15), respectively, but were negative for Ab to BHV-1 and BVDV. No antibodies against FMDV, BTV, EHV-1, or EIV were detected in wild vicuñe; as or domestic species. Because no data of viral circulation on wild vicuñe; as are available, this report represents the first evidence of viral infection in wild vicuñe; as from the Argentinean Andean Puna.

A 4–6-mo-old female red fox (Vulpes vulpes) was presented to the Atlantic Veterinary College (AVC) Teaching Hospital, Prince Edward Island, Canada. On presentation, the fox was weak and had pale mucous membranes. A complete blood count and a serum biochemistry profile were performed. Blood smear examination revealed low numbers of erythrocytes containing centrally to paracentrally located, single, rarely multiple, approximately 1×2 μm, oval to round organisms with morphology similar to Babesia microti. Polymerase chain reaction testing and DNA sequencing of the Babesia species 18S rRNA gene were performed on DNA extracted from whole blood. Results were positive for a Babesia microti–like parasite genetically identical to Babesia (Theileria) annae. The fox was euthanized due to poor prognosis for recovery. Necropsy examination revealed multifocal to locally extensive subacute nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis, an eosinophilic bronchopneumonia, a moderate diffuse vacuolar hepatopathy, and lesions associated with blunt trauma to the left abdominal region. This is the first reported case of a red fox in Canada infected with a piroplasm. It remains uncertain whether the presence of this hemoparasite in this fox was pathogenic or an incidental finding. The potential for competent vectors of Babesia species on Prince Edward Island, the potential for this Babesia microti–like parasite to infect other wild and domestic canids, and the significance of this parasite to the health of infected individuals are yet to be determined.

Helicobacter spp. occur in the digestive system of a broad range of animal taxa, including marine mammals. Only one formally recognized species, Helicobacter cetorum, has been described in marine mammals. Helicobacter has not been reported in the Atlantic spotted dolphin (Stenella frontalis). The purpose of our study was to examine the digestive tract of a stranded spotted dolphin for Helicobacter. Tissue and content samples were collected at necropsy and examined by histopathology and molecular analyses using Helicobacter genus-specific 16S rDNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. Helicobacter was detected in all stomach divisions and the duodenal ampulla. A sequence type of the 16S rRNA gene shared a 98–99% identity to sequences from H. cetorum. This study reports for the first time Helicobacter in S. frontalis.

The zoonotic agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB), Mycobacterium bovis, can be transmitted between domestic and wild animals, threatening wildlife populations and control programs for bTB in cattle. In Corsica, a French Mediterranean island where domestic and wild species have close interactions, bTB cases have been reported in cattle, pigs, and wild boar. Moreover, genotypes of M. bovis found in wild and domestic animals from the same area were identical. These data strongly suggest that wild and domestic animals are associated in an epidemiologic bTB-transmission cycle. More investigations are needed, not only to understand the role played by each species in order to implement appropriate control measures, but also to assess the risk of transmission to humans.

We describe asymptomatic piroplasmosis caused by a Babesia microti–like parasite in wild raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) diagnosed by blood smear and DNA analysis. This is the first description of natural B. microti–like parasite infection in raccoon dogs and suggests that the wild raccoon dog can be a source for B. microti–like parasite infection of domestic dogs and humans.

We evaluated, refined, and applied well-established polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for detecting Yersinia pestis DNA in fleas (mainly Oropsylla spp.) collected from prairie dog (Cynomys spp.) burrows. Based on results from PCR of avirulent Y. pestis strain A1122 DNA, we used DNA purification and primers for the plasminogen activator gene to screen field-collected fleas. We detected Y. pestis DNA in flea pools from two black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) colonies with evidence of recent plague epizootics, and from one of four white-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus) colony complexes (Wolf Creek) where evidence of epizootic plague was lacking. Relative flea abundance and occurrence of Y. pestis DNA among flea pools appeared to vary over time at Wolf Creek. Both DNA purification and primer sequences appeared to influence the likelihood of detecting Y. pestis DNA by PCR in fleas collected from prairie dog burrows in the absence of observed epizootic plague. Presence of Y. pestis plasmid DNA in fleas collected from prairie dog burrows at Wolf Creek may represent evidence that infected fleas were somehow being maintained in that system between epizootics, consistent with the hypothesized enzootic maintenance of plague in prairie dog colony complexes elsewhere.

We obtained hematologic and plasma biochemistry values for adult, long-distance migrant Red Knots at their southernmost wintering site in Río Grande (Tierra del Fuego, Argentina) and at the first stopover site in San Antonio Oeste (Río Negro, Argentina). Lymphocytes (L) followed by heterophils (H) were the most abundant leukocytes. H/L ratio and glucose levels were significantly higher at Río Grande, possibly because of the stress of migration and molting. Packed cell volume results ranged widely, probably in response to increased oxygen demand for migration. Protein profiles and lipids were higher at the stopover site and attributable to birds storing reserves for subsequent flights.

Avian influenza virus (AIV) circulates among free-ranging, wild birds. We optimized and validated a DNA barcoding technique for AIV isolation and host-species identification using fecal samples from wild birds. DNA barcoding was optimized using tissue and fecal samples from known bird species, and the method was shown to distinguish 26 bird species. Subsequently, fecal samples (n=743) collected from wild waterfowl habitats confirmed the findings from the laboratory tests. All identified AIV-positive hosts (n=35) were members of the order Anseriformes. We successfully applied the DNA barcoding technique to AIV surveillance and examined AIV epidemiology and host ecology in these wild waterfowl populations. This methodology may be useful in the design of AIV surveillance strategies.

Deep muscle biopsies were collected from the pectoralis and longissimus dorsi of wild Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, during October–December 2007. Sterile swabs were collected from the surface of each skin site before biopsy and from the deep-needle path after biopsy. No growth occurred in two of six pectoralis and three of six longissimus skin sites, or in four of 10 pectoralis deep biopsy and eight of 12 longissimus deep-biopsy sites. Positive skin culture was not predictive of deep-biopsy contamination, nor did contamination at one body location correlate with contamination at the second site. Psychrobacter species were most common in one or more samples from each of the four sample types. Only one of the eight documented bacteria exhibited resistance to commonly used antibiotics.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) and West Nile virus (WNV) are emerging zoonotic arboviruses that have recently undergone intercontinental expansion. Both JEV and WNV are naturally transmitted between mosquito vectors and vertebrate reservoir hosts, including birds. A potential route of JEV introduction from Asia to western North America is via the Hawaiian archipelago, while the spread of WNV from mainland North America to Hawai‘i is also considered an impending threat. We surveyed resident, non-native bird sera for antibodies to JEV and WNV on two Hawaiian Islands from 2004–2005. Three of 1,835 birds (0.16%) had evidence of antiflavivirus antibodies, demonstrating neutralizing activity to JEV and St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV). These detections could represent a limited transmission focus of either, or both, JEV and SLEV, or cross-reactive antibodies due to primary infection with an alternate flavivirus. Frequent air traffic from both Asia and North America to Hawai‘i, along with the presence of probable competent vectors and amplifying vertebrate hosts in Hawai‘i, increases the likelihood of introduction and maintenance of novel flaviviruses. Therefore, it is important to monitor for the presence of these viruses.

Gross and histopathologic findings are described in an adult male raccoon (Procyon lotor) with Staphylococcus aureus infection affecting several organs. At the time of necropsy the carcass was jaundiced and in poor nutritional state. A large, raised, irregular necrotic mass was present in the spleen. The liver had small multifocal, pale yellow, randomly distributed foci throughout the parenchyma. Coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus was cultured from both the liver and the spleen. Microscopic lesions were present in spleen, liver, kidney, and heart, which suggested systemic infection. Although S. aureus has been cultured from raccoons previously, the bacterium did not appear to have been associated with pathology. In this case, S. aureus was obtained as a pure culture, but microscopic examination did not show large numbers of bacterial colonies as seen in other species with such lesions.

A polycystic disease of the liver was diagnosed in 12 adult, free-living chamois (Rupicaprae rupicaprae) from alpine regions in the Western part of Austria. The animals (eight female, four male), all in advanced age (average 13 yr old), were killed by local hunters, most because of emaciation or abnormal behavior. The livers of the animals were enlarged and contained multiple, thin-walled cysts of various sizes filled with serous, amber fluid. No evidence for parasites was found in the cysts. There were no cysts present in other organs. The cysts were lined by a single layer of flattened or low, cubical epithelium indicating biliary origin. Except in one case, no fibrosis was found in the adjacent liver tissue. In six cases, mild eosinophilic inflammation in the surrounding hepatic parenchyma suggested that the cysts could result from previous parasitic migration. Although nothing is known regarding heredity, these morphologic findings may also indicate an adult type of polycystic disease. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing polycystic liver disease in this species.

Gazella subgutturosa subgutturosa (goitered gazelle) is a native species of Anatolia. Because of the risk of extinction, captured gazelles have been taken under protection in a restricted area at the Ceylanpinar state farm, Southeast Anatolia, Turkey. Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection had been detected previously in domestic ruminant species in this region, like in many other parts of Turkey. In this study, serum samples from 82 goitered gazelle were tested using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA). Based on the test results, PPRV-specific antibodies were detected in 10 gazelles (12%). All c-ELISA-positive sera were confirmed by virus neutralization test.

In June 2005, a free-ranging grass snake, Natrix natrix infected with Rhabdias fuscovenosa was collected for histologic examination of the lungs. Gross lesions were not noted; however, histologic examination revealed vacuolar degeneration of the respiratory epithelium, hemorrhage, smooth muscle degeneration, faveolae necrosis and obstruction, and intralesional nematodes. Eosinophils were the most common inflammatory cell observed in the areas of necrosis and interstitium. Herein we describe histopathologic changes due to R. fuscovenosa in a free-ranging grass snake.