Escherichia coli was isolated from wild and captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) to investigate the risk of zoonotic infections and the prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli in the wild macaque population in Shimokita Peninsula, a rural area of Japan. We collected 265 fresh fecal samples from wild macaques and 20 samples from captive macaques in 2005 and 2006 for E. coli isolation. The predominant isolates were characterized by serotyping, virulence gene profiling, plasmid profiling, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and microbial sensitivity tests. In total, 248 E. coli strains were isolated from 159 fecal samples from wild macaques, and 42 E. coli were isolated from 17 samples from captive macaques. None of the virulence genes eae, stx, elt, and est were detected in any of the isolates. The relatedness between wild- and captive-derived isolates was low by serotyping, PFGE, and plasmid profiling. Serotypes O8:H6, O8:H34, O8:H42, O8:HUT, O103:H27, O103:HNM, and OUT:H27 were found in wild macaque feces; serotypes O157:H42 and O119:H21 were recovered from captive macaques. O-and H-serotypes of the 26 isolates were not typed by commercial typing antisera and were named OUT and HUT, respectively. Twenty-eight isolates had no flagellar antigen, and their H-serotypes were named HNM. Similarity of PFGE patterns between wild-derived isolates and captive-derived isolates was <70%. No plasmid profile was shared between wild-derived and captive-derived isolates. The prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli was 6.5% (n=62) in wild macaques, and these isolates were resistant to cephalothin. We conclude that wild Japanese macaques in Shimokita Peninsula were unlikely to act as a reservoir of pathogenic E. coli for humans and that antimicrobial-resistant E. coli in wild macaques may be derived from humans.

Presence of Salmonella spp. was evaluated in yacare caiman (Caiman yacare) and broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) from a ranching facility in the Argentine Chaco. Crocodilian ranching programs are based on captive breeding of wild-harvested eggs and release of excess hatchlings into the wild. Samples for bacterial isolation were collected from 102 captive (35 C. yacare and 67 C. latirostris) and seven free-ranging caiman (four C. yacare and three C. latirositris) between 2001 and 2005 and from three artificially incubated C. yacare wild eggs. Two Salmonella spp. of known zoonotic potential, S. infantis and S. nottingham, were isolated from captive caiman in 2001 and 2002, respectively. This is the first report for S. nottingham in reptiles and of S. infantis in caiman. Salmonella spp. prevalence varied significantly between years, with a 77% prevalence peak in 2002. Although the cause of this increase was not confirmed, we found no correlation with the type of enclosure, caiman species, or body weight. Deteriorated physical condition of caiman hatchlings due to dietary changes in 2002 could have influenced Salmonella spp. shedding. However, external sources such as food, water, or enclosures could not be ruled out. Pathogenic Salmonella spp. present a risk for human infection. Inadvertent introduction of Salmonella spp. or other bacteria into the environment when caiman are released could pose a threat to wild caiman populations. Prophylactic measures to detect and decrease Salmonella spp. presence in caiman ranching facilities are recommended to reduce risk to humans and make caiman-ranching a sound conservation strategy for crocodilian species.

Bacterial infections are an important cause of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) mortality, and some of these infections may originate from terrestrial and anthropogenic sources. Antimicrobials are an important therapeutic tool for management of bacterial infections in stranded sea otters and for prevention of infection following invasive procedures in free-ranging otters. In this study, susceptibility to commonly used antimicrobials was determined for 126 isolates of 15 bacterial species or groups from necropsied, live-stranded injured or sick, and apparently healthy wild sea otters examined between 1998 and 2005. These isolates included both gram-positive and gram-negative strains of primary pathogens, opportunistic pathogens, and environmental flora, including bacterial species with proven zoonotic potential. Minimal evidence of antimicrobial resistance and no strains with unusual or clinically significant multiple-drug resistance patterns were identified. Collectively, these findings will help optimize selection of appropriate antimicrobials for treatment of bacterial diseases in sea otters and other marine species.

The mountain hare (Lepus timidus) population in southern Norway appears to be in decline. Necropsy and laboratory examinations of 36 hares found dead or diseased during 2007–2009 in Vest- and Aust-Agder counties showed that disease and deaths were attributed to multiple causes, with no specific etiology emerging as a cause for population decline. To investigate whether Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) infection is associated with mortality in mountain hares, tissues and ticks collected from hares were investigated for infection with the spirochete. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. DNA was not detected in samples from internal organs, whereas Borrelia afzelii, B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.), and the not-yet-defined Borrelia sp. SV1 were found in skin samples from hares and in adult and nymphal Ixodes ricinus feeding on hares. Only B. burgdorferi s.s. and Borrelia sp. SV1 were detected in larvae feeding on hares. Our results indicate that disseminated Borrelia infection in hares rarely occurs and, presumably, does not play a central role in the suspected population decline. The results also suggest that the mountain hare to some degree functions as a transmission host for B. burgdorferi s.s. and Borrelia sp. SV1.

The Cypriot mouflon (Ovis orientalis ophion), a once almost extirpated species of wild sheep, is under strict surveillance because it can be threatened by likely transmission of pathogenic bacteria, such as Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia spp., and Coxiella burnetii, primarily from domestic ungulates. We collected 77 blood samples from Cypriot mouflons and 663 of their ectoparasites (Rhipicephalus turanicus, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Rhipicephalus bursa, Hyalomma anatolicum excavatum, Hyalomma marginatum, Haemaphysalis punctata, Haemaphysalis sulcata, and Ixodes gibossus) and tested them by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing. Twenty-three mouflon blood samples (30%) were positive for C. burnetii, 23 (30%) for Rickettsia spp., and 8 (10%) for Anaplasma ovis. Of 109 pools of ectoparasites, 32.1% were positive for C. burnetii, 28.4% for Rickettsia spp., and 10.9% for A. ovis; 11.9% were positive for both C. burnetii and Rickettsia spp., 6.4% for both Rickettsia spp. and A. ovis, and 2.8% for all three pathogens. This is the first survey that records the presence of tick-borne pathogens, both in the Cypriot mouflon and in ticks parasitizing it.

Sixty adult and yearling female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were collected in July 2008 (n=30) and March 2009 (n=30) from eastern North Carolina as part of a population health assessment. During July 2008, standard serum analyses revealed hyperkalemia in all deer sampled. In March, the effect of processing time as a possible source of the hyperkalemia was investigated. For a subset of deer (n=10), blood tubes were centrifuged and processed at four time points (0, 30, 60, and 120 min) postcollection. Delayed centrifugation and plasma separation did not affect potassium (K ) concentration over time, indicating that a shift in intracellular K did not occur and the hyperkalemia was not due to improper sample handling. Potassium levels were negatively correlated with age and varied across collection periods. Also, K levels were positively correlated with glucose and not correlated with creatine kinase (CK). No single variable indicated a strong enough relationship to explain the hyperkalemia in the study.

In Vietnam, Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) are common in a variety of habitats, such as freshwater marshes, beaches, and paddy fields. They are also found associated with cattle (Bos spp.) and occasionally with pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), and horses (Equus caballus) and are kept for insect control in households. In this study, six Cattle Egrets were experimentally infected intranasally with highly pathogenic avian influenza (AI) A/duck/Vietnam/40D/04 (H5N1) to investigate a possible epidemiologic role for Cattle Egrets in outbreaks of H5N1 AI in Vietnam. The Cattle Egrets were highly susceptible to the infection and either died within a week or had to be euthanized. Five uninfected chickens housed with the inoculated Cattle Egrets from day 1 to day 8 postinfection showed no signs of disease or mortality. This observation was most probably due to the low-level virus shedding by the Cattle Egrets. We concluded that Cattle Egrets are not significant reservoir hosts for H5N1 AI virus.

Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) are critically endangered, primarily threatened by the overharvesting of eggs, fisheries entanglement, and coastal development. The Pacific leatherback population has experienced a catastrophic decline over the past two decades. Leatherbacks foraging off the coast of California are part of a distinct Western Pacific breeding stock that nests on beaches in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. Although it has been proposed that the rapid decline of Pacific leatherback turtles is due to increased adult mortality, little is known about the health of this population. Health assessments in leatherbacks have examined females on nesting beaches, which provides valuable biological information, but might have limited applicability to the population as a whole. During September 2005 and 2007, we conducted physical examinations on 19 foraging Pacific leatherback turtles and measured normal physiologic parameters, baseline hematologic and plasma biochemistry values, and exposure to heavy metals (cadmium, lead, and mercury), organochlorine contaminants, and domoic acid. We compared hematologic values of foraging Pacific leatherbacks with their nesting counterparts in Papua New Guinea (n=11) and with other nesting populations in the Eastern Pacific in Costa Rica (n=8) and in the Atlantic in St. Croix (n=12). This study provides the most comprehensive assessment to date of the health status of leatherbacks in the Pacific. We found significant differences in blood values between foraging and nesting leatherbacks, which suggests that health assessment studies conducted only on nesting females might not accurately represent the whole population. The establishment of baseline physiologic data and blood values for healthy foraging leatherback turtles, including males, provides valuable data for long-term health monitoring and comparative studies of this endangered population.

Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) survive in many climates, reproduce year-round, and are dietary generalists. In the United States, the size and range of the feral pig population has expanded, resulting in greater interaction with humans and domestic swine and increased potential for disease transmission. We conducted a serosurvey in feral pigs from eastern North Carolina to determine exposure to the zoonotic parasites, Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp. Between September 2007 and March 2009, blood serum was collected from 83 feral pigs harvested at Howell Woods Environmental Learning Center, Four Oaks, North Carolina, USA. We used a modified agglutination test to test for T. gondii antibodies and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to test for Trichinella spp. antibodies. The prevalences of antibodies to T. gondii and Trichinella spp. were 27.7% and 13.3%, respectively and 4% (n=3) had antibodies to both agents. We detected an increased risk of T. gondii antibodies with age, whereas the risk of exposure to T. gondii across years and between sexes was similar. In eastern North Carolina, feral pigs have been exposed to T. gondii and Trichinella spp. and may pose a health risk to domestic swine and humans.

Numerous serotypes of Salmonella have been detected in a variety of wild animals, including raccoons (Procyon lotor). Raccoons are common, mid-size omnivores that live in close association with people in urban and rural areas in Ontario. Although raccoons are known to shed Salmonella, little is known about their potential long-term role in maintaining Salmonella infections. We sampled feces from raccoons in three areas of Ontario: one primarily urban site around Niagara, one primarily rural site north of Guelph, and the grounds of the Toronto Zoo, in 2007 to identify which serotypes of Salmonella were commonly shed by raccoons in southern Ontario. In addition, we conducted a longitudinal study at the Toronto Zoo site to determine if raccoons remain persistently infected with Salmonella. Salmonella was found in 45% of samples. The prevalence of Salmonella in raccoon feces ranged from 27% at the rural site to 65% at the urban site. We detected 16 serotypes of Salmonella in 83 positive samples. The most common serotype detected in raccoons from the rural and zoo sites was Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium, whereas Salmonella Newport was detected most commonly in the urban site. Only one raccoon of 11 that were captured in four or more consecutive trapping sessions shed the same Salmonella serotype for two consecutive months, suggesting that raccoons regularly acquire new Salmonella serotypes from the environment.

Novel members of the bacterial genus Brucella have recently emerged as pathogens of various marine mammal species and as potential zoonotic agents. We investigated the epizootiology of Brucella infection in Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) by establishing demographic and temporal variations in antibody prevalence, attempting isolation of the causative agent, and determining whether this potential pathogen is involved in frequent abortions observed in this pinniped species. Two competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (cELISAs), an indirect ELISA, and a fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) were used to test sera for Brucella antibodies. The FPA and cELISA proved suitable for use in this species. Significant differences in antibody prevalence were found between age classes of seals sampled between 2007 and 2009 at one colony. Pups sampled at this site (n=134) were negative for Brucella antibodies by all serologic tests but 17 of 45 (38%) of juveniles were antibody-positive. Antibody prevalence in adult females was significantly higher than in juveniles (P=0.044). Antibody prevalence for adult females between 2003 and 2009 varied significantly over time (P=0.011), and for individuals sampled between 2003 and 2005, the likelihood of pregnancy was greater in individuals positive for Brucella antibodies (P=0.034). Inflammatory lesions suggestive of infectious agents were found in 14 of 39 aborted Australian fur seal pups, but pathologic changes were not uniformly consistent for Brucella infection. Culture and PCR investigations on fetal tissues were negative for Brucella. Culture and PCR on selected fresh or frozen tissues from 36 juvenile and adult animals were also negative. We suspect that the prevalence of active infection with Brucella in Australian fur seals is low relative to antibody prevalence.

We investigated intraspecific transmission of Mycobacterium bovis (etiologic agent of bovine tuberculosis [Tb]) among penned pigs (Sus scrofa) in New Zealand. Between 2002 and 2006, we conducted two trials, each involving two 1-ha pens in natural habitat in which uninfected sentinel pigs were kept with wild-caught feral pigs, many of which were infected with M. bovis. The rate of M. bovis transmission to sentinels was used to assess whether intraspecies transmission between live pigs could explain the high levels of infection in the wild population. In trial 1, no new infection was detected in 18 penned sentinels after total exposure of 3.9 yr (2.6 mo/sentinel); three of 11 sentinels in the wild became infected. In trial 2, a more heavily infected source pig population (94% prevalence compared with 42% in the first trial) was used, and one (4%) of 25 penned sentinels became infected. However, 75% of the eight sentinels released to the wild became infected. Combining trials, the difference in apparent annual incidence was significant (mean ±95% confidence interval = 0.03±0.12 for penned sentinels vs. 1.06±6.74 for released sentinels; t= –3.51, P=0.04). In the pens, infected pigs were kept in contact with susceptible sentinels for 7 yr in total, but only one transmission event was detected. Taking pig longevity into account, the R₀ value (the basic reproductive rate of disease) for intraspecies infection between live pigs seems unlikely to exceed 0.25, even under highly conducive conditions. We suggest that live pigs are unlikely to transmit M. bovis to wild conspecifics often enough to sustain Tb in pigs by this route of transmission alone. The high prevalences seen in some New Zealand feral pig populations are likely to result from transmission from another host or route.

In recent years, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has increasingly occupied urban areas in central Europe. Meanwhile, prevalence of infection in foxes with the small fox tapeworm (Echinococcus multilocularis) has increased, thereby increasing the human risk of infection with the parasite, which causes alveolar echinococcosis. Baiting strategies to counteract E. multilocularis have been implemented in cities and the open countryside, but there are few data on the situation in villages and small towns (<10,000 inhabitants). We recorded disappearance rates of praziquantel-containing bait within villages and small towns and on settlement edges for 7 days after distribution. Disappearance rates were 89.2% in villages, 88.8% in small towns, and 91.8% in settlement edges. More than 75% of the bait was consistently taken within the first three nights. There were no significant differences in disappearance rates between years or among seasons (Cox proportional hazard model). The survival time of the bait in small towns (P= 0.021) and villages (P=0.026) depended on the zone (zone 1, first row of houses bordering on open countryside; zone 2, second to fourth rows, zone 3; beyond the fifth row) in which bait was distributed. In villages, the probability of bait being eaten in zone 1 was 119% higher than it was in zone 3 (P=0.007). In small towns, the probability was 60% higher (P=0.006).

We conducted a cross-sectional study from 2008 to 2009 to evaluate the occurrence of feral and wild cats and the risk of Toxoplasma gondii infection in terrestrial wildlife in a natural area in Illinois, USA. Felids are definitive hosts for T. gondii and cats are a key component of rural and urban transmission of T. gondii. We selected four forest sites within the interior of the park and four edge sites within 300 m of human buildings. Feline and wildlife occurrence in the natural area was determined with the use of scent stations, motion-detection cameras, and overnight live trapping. Based on scent stations and trapping, feral cats used building sites more than forest sites (scent stations: P=0.010; trapping: P=0.083). Prevalence of T. gondii antibodies was determined with the use of the indirect immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) with a titer of 1:25 considered positive; T. gondii antibodies were detected in wildlife at all sites. Wildlife species were classified as having a large home range (LHR) or a small home range (SHR), based on published estimates and using a cutoff of 100 ha. Small–home-range mammals had a higher prevalence of antibody to T. gondii (odds ratio [OR] =4.2; P=0.018) at sites with a high frequency of cat occurrence (defined as ≥9 cat occurrences across three detection methods); this finding indicates that feral cats are the most likely source of environmental contamination. Overall, the prevalence of antibody to T. gondii among LHR mammals was significantly higher than the prevalence among SHR mammals (OR=7.1; P<0.001). Small–home-range mammals are an essential part of T. gondii–antibody prevalence studies and can be used as sentinels for risk of disease exposure to humans and wildlife in natural areas. This study improves our understanding of ecologic drivers behind the occurrence of spatial variation of T. gondii within a natural area.

Mandibular osteomyelitis in free-ranging cervids is a rare, but eventually fatal, disease. We examined 41,895 defleshed mandibles of roe deer collected throughout Slovenia in 2007. Mandibles from 14,679 fawns had no signs of osteomyelitis, and were excluded from further analysis. Of the remaining 27,216 specimens, chronic osteomyelitis (‘‘lumpy jaw'') was found in 113 mandibles (4.2%; 7.0% of adults). The majority of cases were observed from the Mediterranean and subalpine regions, near larger cities and thermal power plants. There was no statistically significant correlation between severity of the mandibular osteomyelitis and body weight. Females were more frequently affected than males. Coarse and abrasive food, and to some extent dental fluorosis, are the most probable triggers for development of lesions.

Although the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) is considered an important maintenance host for low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses, viral cell tropism and pathology in naturally infected birds are largely unknown. In August 2006, we collected 19 free-living hatch-year Mallards that were positive for LPAI virus by real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR) in combined oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs. We investigated virus infection and associated lesions in the digestive and respiratory tracts by RRT-PCR, virus culture, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and histology. By RRT-PCR, 15 birds were positive in cloacal bursa, colon/cloaca, or both, and three were positive in lungs. Virus was isolated from eight birds and typed as H2N3 (three birds), H3N3 (two birds), H3N8 (one bird), H4N6 (one bird), and H?N3 (one bird). By IHC, birds were positive in the cloacal bursa (eight birds), colon (three), cecum (two), or ileum (one). Cell types infected were superficial epithelial cells of the bursa and epithelial cells of the intestinal villi and, less commonly, mucosal glands. By histology, there was no evidence of lesions associated with LPAI virus infection. These results show that epithelia of the cloacal bursa and of the lower intestine are important sites of natural LPAI virus infection in free-living hatch-year Mallards. The lack of lesions associated with this infection suggests that there is a strong selection by LPAI virus to cause minimal virulence in this maintenance host species.

We report the presence of pigmented skin tumors in three populations of the endangered amphibian Montseny brook newt, Calotriton arnoldi, one of the European amphibian species with the smallest distribution range (40 km² in the Montseny Natural Park, Catalonia, Spain). Examination of one of the tumors by light microscopy was consistent with chromatophoroma and was most suggestive of a melanophoroma. Tumors were not found in juveniles. In adults, only two of three populations were affected. The proportions of males and females affected were not significantly different, but there was a positive correlation between body size and presence of tumors in both sexes. The etiology of chromatophoromas remains unknown but, in our study, they do not appear to have been caused by water quality or Ultraviolet B.

Beginning in early 2006, an ocular disease of unknown etiology was routinely observed in American crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus) inhabiting the highly polluted Tarcoles River in west-central Costa Rica. We examined the nature and incidence of ocular disease in Tarcoles crocodiles and assessed the possible association between the disease and accumulation of chemical pollutants in diseased individuals. During 12–15 September and 12–13 December 2007, crocodiles were captured and examined for ocular disease and sampled to determine environmental contaminant accumulation. Three of 11 (27.3%) crocodiles captured (all males) exhibited unilateral ocular disease, primarily characterized by corneal opacity and scarring, anterior synechia, and phthisis bulbi. Multiple pollutants were detected in crocodile caudal scutes (organochlorine pesticides [OCPs] and metals), crocodile blood (OCPs), and sediments (OCPs and metals) from the Tarcoles, but no associations were found between contaminant accumulation and the incidence of eye disease. On the basis of the limited number of diseased animals examined and the potential exposure of crocodiles to pathogens and other pollutants not targeted in this study, we cannot rule out infection or chemical toxicosis as causes of the eye lesions. However, circumstantial evidence suggests that the observed ocular disease is likely the result of injury-induced trauma (and possibly secondary infection) inflicted during aggressive encounters (e.g., territorial combat) among large adult crocodiles living at relatively high densities.

Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is an infectious disease caused by hantaviruses of the family Bunyaviridae. Among them, Hantaan virus (HTNV) is most widely distributed in Korea. The striped field mouse, Apodemus agrarius, is the natural host of HTNV in rural Korea. We trapped 766 small mammals of three species (1 Eothenomys regulus, 13 Crocidura suaveolens, and 752 Apodemus agrarius) in five provinces in Korea from January to December 2007. We tested 542 rodent sera for HTNV antibodies by an indirect immunofluorescent assay (IFA), finding antibody prevalences of 4 to 29% among the five provinces. Peaks in monthly antibody prevalence occurred in spring and fall. Antibody prevalence during the second peak coincided increased HFRS incidence in autumn. We used multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to detect the partial S segment of Hantaan, Seoul, and Puumala viruses in 766 lung samples of all captured animals and found HTNV RNA in 25 A. agrarius. Two isolates of HTNV were obtained from PCR-positive A. agrarius by cultivation in Vero E6 cells. This first systemic survey of monthly antibody prevalence in hantavirus hosts in wide regions in Korea could provide useful information for other researchers studying environmental and ecological factors affecting HFRS.

Avian paramyxoviruses type 1 or Newcastle disease viruses (NDV) are frequently recovered from wild birds and such isolates are most frequently of low virulence. Velogenic NDV are usually recovered from poultry and only occasionally from wild birds. Five NDV isolates were obtained from carcasses of four wild bird species during 2007 in Serbia: Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), feral Rock Pigeon (Columba livia), and Eurasian Collared Dove (Streptopelia decaocto). All the isolates have a typical fusion protein cleavage site motif of velogenic viruses (¹¹²R-R-Q-K-R-F¹¹⁷). The highest homology (99%) for the nucleotide sequences spanning the M and F gene of the studied isolates was with the genotype VII NDV isolate Muscovy duck/China(Fujian)/FP1/02. Phylogenetic analysis based on a partial F gene sequence showed that the isolates from wild birds cluster together with concurrent isolates from poultry in Serbia within the subgenotype VIId, which is the predominant pathogen involved currently in Newcastle disease outbreaks in poultry worldwide. It is unlikely that the wild birds played an important role in primary introduction or consequent spread of the velogenic NDV to domestic poultry in Serbia, and they probably contracted the virus from locally infected poultry.

An infectious disease caused by Squirrelpox virus has contributed to the decline of red squirrels, Sciurus vulgaris, in the British Isles. Because of the heightened disease surveillance activity in red squirrels, adenovirus infection with associated mortality has been detected. Adenoviral disease is described in other rodent species usually associated with stressors. Here we 1) describe the pathologic findings in red squirrels found dead with adenoviral infection and gastrointestinal disease, and 2) investigate the epizootiology of the disease through pathologic investigation, scanning surveillance, and virologic studies. Ten red squirrels involved in conservation studies were diagnosed with adenoviral infection by electron microscopy or PCR. All squirrels exhibited diarrhea and small intestinal inflammation or hemorrhage was evident in seven cases. Lesions indicative of splenic lymphocytolysis were observed in one squirrel and leukocytic hepatitis in another. No adenovirus was detected in grey squirrels, Sciurus carolinensis, inhabiting the same forest area, but previous serologic studies showed that grey squirrels cannot be discounted as a reservoir of the virus. Scanning surveillance showed that 12% of 493 red squirrels had diarrheal disease and two of 13 free-living red squirrels with diarrheal disease had adenovirus infection. Adenoviral disease in declining free-living wild red squirrel populations in the British Isles occurs at a detectable frequency and its impact on the conservation of this species deserves further attention.

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a fungal pathogen responsible for a potentially fatal disease of amphibians. We conducted a survey for B. dendrobatidis in the Appalachian Mountains of southwestern North Carolina, USA, from 10 June to 23 July 23 2009. Ventral skin swabs were collected from plethodontid salamanders (n=278) and real-time PCR was performed to test for the presence of B. dendrobatidis. We found no evidence of B. dendrobatidis, suggesting that B. dendrobatidis is absent or present in such low levels that it was undetected. If B. dendrobatidis was present at the time of our sampling, this survey supports evidence of low prevalence of B. dendrobatidis in North American headwater stream salamander populations.

The Arctic variant of rabies virus has been maintained in striped skunks in small foci in southwestern Ontario, Canada, despite the control of the disease in red foxes. To control the disease in skunks, high-density baiting with ONRAB® oral rabies vaccine baits was conducted by air and by hand distribution of baits in the vicinity of skunk cases. During 2009, antibody prevalences in skunks were higher in areas baited at a density of 300 baits/km² and flight-line spacing of 0.25 km than at 0.5-km spacing. Once an area containing Arctic-variant cases was treated with high densities of ONRAB baits, the disease did not reoccur in skunks in those areas. During 2009, only eight skunks were diagnosed with the Arctic variant of rabies virus in Ontario.

Surveillance for avian influenza viruses in wild birds was initiated in Canada in 2005. In 2006, in order to maximize detection of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses, the sampling protocol used in Canada's Inter-agency Wild Bird Influenza Survey was changed. Instead of collecting a single cloacal swab, as previously done in 2005, cloacal and oropharyngeal swabs were combined in a single vial at collection. In order to compare the two sampling methods, duplicate samples were collected from 798 wild dabbling ducks (tribe Anatini) in Canada between 24 July and 7 September 2006. Low pathogenic avian influenza viruses were detected significantly more often (P<0.0001) in combined oropharyngeal and cloacal samples (261/798, 33%) than in cloacal swabs alone (205/798, 26%). Compared to traditional single cloacal samples, combined samples improved virus detection at minimal additional cost.

Following the isolation of Mycoplasma phocicerebrale from the flipper wound of a grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) in Cornwall, UK, surveillance for Mycoplasma species was extended to include other seals rescued or found dead around the UK. Mycoplasma phocicerebrale was frequently detected from the teeth of seals and from infected wounds and respiratory tracts. Mycoplasma phocirhinis, Mycoplasma phocidae, and some unidentified Mycoplasma species were also detected. Mycoplasma phocicerebrale and M. phocidae were the only bacteria consistently identified from the wound infections, but their role in respiratory and other diseases remains unknown, as other bacteria were also isolated from respiratory sites.