Waterfowl are natural reservoirs for zoonotic pathogens, and abundant resident (nonmigratory) Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) in urban and suburban environments pose the potential for transmission of Campylobacter through human contact with fecal deposits and contaminated water. In June 2008 and July 2009, we collected 318 fecal samples from resident Canada Geese at 21 locations in and around Greensboro, North Carolina, to test for Campylobacter. All campylobacter species detected were C. jejuni isolates, and prevalences in 2008 and 2009 were 5.0% and 16.0%, respectively. Prevalence of C. jejuni–positive sampling sites was 21% (3/14) and 40% (6/15) in 2008 and 2009, respectively. All C. jejuni isolates were susceptible to a panel of six antimicrobial agents (tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin, kanamycin, nalidixic acid, and ciprofloxacin). We used pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and fla-typing to identify several strain types among these isolates. Multilocus sequence typing of representative isolates revealed six sequence types, of which two (ST-3708 and ST-4368) were new, two (ST-702 and ST-4080) had been detected previously among C. jejuni from geese, and two (ST-991 and ST-4071) were first reported in C. jejuni from an environmental water source and a human illness, respectively. These results indicate a diverse population of antibiotic-susceptible C. jejuni in resident Canada Geese in and around Greensboro, North Carolina, and suggest a need for additional assessment of the public health risk associated with resident Canada Geese in urban and suburban areas.

The interaction among several parasites in European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is crucial to host fitness and to the epidemiology of myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease. These diseases have caused significant reductions in rabbit populations on the Iberian Peninsula. Most studies have focused on the epidemiology and pathogenesis of these viruses individually, and little is known about interactions between these viruses and other parasites. Taking advantage of an experimental restocking program in Spain, the effects of coccidian and nematode infections on the probability of having detectable antibody to myxoma and rabbit hemorrhagic disease viruses were tested in European wild rabbits. For 14 mo, we monitored rabbit abundance and parasite loads (coccidia and nematodes) in three reintroduced rabbit populations. While coccidian and nematode loads explained seasonal antibody prevalences to myxoma virus, the pattern was less clear for rabbit hemorrhagic disease. Contrary to expectations, prevalence of antibody to myxoma virus was inversely proportional to coccidian load, while nematode load seemed to play a minor role. These results have implications for viral disease epidemiology and for disease management intended to increase rabbit populations in areas where they are important for ecosystem conservation.

To identify threats to the survival of koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) in coastal New South Wales, Australia, we compared 3,781 admission records of koalas, admitted between 1 January 1975 and 31 December 2004 to a koala rehabilitation facility on the midnorthern coast of New South Wales, against local wild population demographics, with the use of multinomial logistic regression and chi-square analyses. Trauma, the most frequent reason for admission, affected young and male animals more frequently than other groups. Seasonal differences in the probability of males presenting as trauma cases suggest behavioral factors as an important risk factor for this group. An increasing probability of koalas presenting as a result of motor vehicle accident since 1985 strongly supports the enhanced action of local authorities to pursue traffic-calming strategies if urban koala populations are to be maintained in this area. Koalas with clinical signs of chlamydiosis made up the second most frequent admission group, and these animals were more likely to be aged. This study highlights the potential usefulness of wildlife rehabilitation centers in detailing threats to local wildlife populations, provided record keeping is efficient and focused, and the role of such studies in providing evidence for focusing threat-mitigation efforts. Continual community engagement by koala researchers is important to ensure that maximum benefit is obtained from activities of special interest groups.

Besnoitia tarandi has been documented in free-ranging reindeer and caribou (Rangifer tarandus spp.) since 1922 throughout their arctic and subarctic ranges; however, very little is known about its epidemiology. We evaluated variables associated with B. tarandi prevalence and cyst density with the use of barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus) from two migratory herds in northern Quebec: the Rivière-aux-Feuilles and the Rivière-George herds. Diagnosis of infection was made upon the microscopic observation of characteristic cysts in a formalin-fixed section of skin from the anterior aspect of the metatarsus. The density of cysts (number of B. tarandi cysts/mm²) was calculated in a section of the dermis extending from the epidermis of the skin to the base of the hair follicles and adnexal structures. Statistically significant associations between B. tarandi prevalence and cyst density, sex, age, and time of harvest were observed. Male caribou had a slightly higher prevalence compared to females, whereas cyst densities were similar between sexes. We found a nonlinear increase in the odds of infection by B. tarandi by age combined with the opposite trend for intensity of infection. Higher B. tarandi prevalence was observed in caribou sampled in the fall compared to June of the same year, suggesting that transmission is increased during the summer. Higher densities of cysts observed during the fall compared to June of the following year may be the result of the elimination of B. tarandi cysts from the dermis during the winter, or lower winter survival of heavily infected caribou. Comparisons of B. tarandi prevalence and density across herds should take into account these different variables.

Toxoplasma gondii, one of the more common zoonotic parasites in the world, can cause serious illness in humans and other animals worldwide. Felids are the only known host that can shed T. gondii oocysts, which are essential to the perpetuation of the parasite. In much of boreal Canada, the Canadian lynx (Lynx canadensis) is the only wild felid host that could contribute to environmental contamination with T. gondii oocysts. We estimated the prevalence of T. gondii antibodies in Canadian lynx from western Québec and compared our results with earlier findings in the same region 12 yr earlier. We investigated factors associated with seroconversion, including age, sex, geographic location, and possible co-occurrence with domestic cats (Felis catus), and we assessed the proportion of lynx shedding T. gondii oocysts. Blood and fecal samples were collected from 84 lynx harvested by trappers in the eastern part of the study area during winter 2009–2010. Sera were tested for antibodies to T. gondii by the modified agglutination test (cutoff titer 1:50) and fecal samples for parasite eggs by fecal flotation. Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in sera of 14% of 84 lynx. Numerous helminth ova and coccidian oocysts were found in feces, whereas T. gondii–like oocysts were not detected. Antibody prevalence increased with age class (odds ratio [OR]=4.33, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.57–11.99, P<0.01). Antibody prevalence (14%) in our study was significantly lower than in 84 lynx (36%) trapped in the western part of the study area during winter 1997–1998 (OR=0.18, 95% CI=0.08–0.44, P<0.001). Our results suggest there may be significant spatiotemporal dynamics of T. gondii infection in lynx in Canada, and we review possible abiotic and biotic ecologic factors supporting these findings.

We performed experiments to test if American Goldfinches (Spinus tristis) could be a competent reservoir for Mycoplasma gallisepticum and play a role in the epidemic spread of mycoplasmal conjunctivitis among House Finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) in North America. We infected one of two individuals housed together in a cage and determined if transmission occurred to the second bird. Probability of transmission between an American Goldfinch and a House Finch (in either direction) was similar to that between two House Finches. In a second experiment small groups of birds (6–8) were housed in large aviaries. Two source birds were inoculated with M. gallisepticum, and transmission to the naive birds in the aviary was recorded. Transmission occurred among House Finches, among American Goldfinches, and from House Finches to American Goldfinches. Transmission was more likely between House Finches than among American Goldfinches, and between House Finches and American Goldfinches. We conclude that American Goldfinches are a competent reservoir for Mycoplasma gallisepticum and could have played a role in the spread of the epidemic as they are more migratory than House Finches.

Border disease virus (BDV) causes high mortality in Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) on the French and Spanish sides of the Pyrenees Mountains. We investigated the pathology induced by BDV in pregnant chamois via experimental infection. Three females were inoculated during the second third of pregnancy with a BDV-4 subgroup strain isolated from a wild Pyrenean chamois during an acute epizootic. A fourth pregnant chamois and one nonpregnant ewe were kept as negative controls. Animals were monitored to assess clinical signs, hematology, viremia, and serology. Postmortem examinations included necropsy, histopathology, and quantification of viral RNA in organs. Pregnancy was unsuccessful in all inoculated animals. One died 24 days postinoculation (dpi) without showing any precursory clinical signs. The second animal had profuse diarrhea from 13 dpi to its death at 51 dpi. The third aborted at 46 dpi and was euthanized at 51 dpi. All animals were viremic from 4 dpi until death. Neutralizing antibodies against BDV-4 were detected from 12 dpi. Necropsies showed generalized lymphadenomegaly, associated in one case with disseminated petechial hemorrhages in the digestive tract. Seventy-eight of 79 organs from inoculated adults and their fetuses had detectable viral RNA. The main histologic lesions in adults were mild lymphohistiocytic encephalitis associated with moderate or moderately severe lymphoid depletion. Control animals remained negative for virus (in blood and organs), antibody, and lesions upon postmortem examination. BDV infection during pregnancy in Pyrenean chamois causes severe disease leading to abortion, then death. Despite 100% fetal death following inoculation, viral RNA was recovered from all organs of infected fetuses, suggesting that persistently infected offspring could be born. Our results may help explain the reported decrease in chamois populations in several areas and suggest that great care must be taken when interpreting infection status for wildlife.

Winter supplementary feeding of wildlife is controversial because it may promote parasite and disease transmission by host aggregation. We investigated the effect of winter supplemental feeding of Scandinavian moose (Alces alces) on gastrointestinal (GI) parasite infection in two counties of southern Norway by comparing fecal egg counts of moose using, and not using, feeding stations between January 2007 and March 2010. We identified three different GI nematodes based on egg morphology. All three were found in Hedmark county while in Telemark county we found only Trichuris sp. (prevalence 33%). Prevalence of Trichostrongylidae (65%) and Nematodirus sp. (26%) in Hedmark was not affected by feeding station use. However, the probability of infection varied significantly between years sampled (Trichostrongylidae) and age class (Nematodirus sp.). Fecal egg counts (FEC), a proxy for intensity of infection, of Trichostrongylidae were higher in the year when winter weather conditions were more challenging and prevalence was higher, and decreased with increasing body mass. Adult moose had higher FECs than did juvenile moose, and female juveniles had lower abundances than did male juveniles. Use of feeding stations did not affect probability of infection with any of the nematodes or intensity of infection with Trichostrongylidae. We discuss our findings in terms of parasite life histories and recommend that parasitologic surveillance be included in the monitoring of feeding programs.

Nestling mortality in the endangered and endemic Hihi, also called Stitchbird (Notiomystis cincta), was studied over the 2008–09 breeding season at Zealandia-Karori Sanctuary, Wellington, New Zealand. Histopathology showed traumatic ventriculitis in seven of 25 (28%) dead nestlings. Single or multiple granulomas centered on chitinous insect remnants were found lodged within the gizzard mucosa, muscle layers, and ventricular or intestinal serosa. The insect remnants were confirmed as bee or wasp stings (Hymenoptera) using light and electron microscopy. Bacteria or yeasts were also found in some granulomas, and death was due to bacterial septicemia in four cases. Endemic New Zealand birds are likely to lack evolutionary adaptations required to safely consume introduced honey bees (Apis mellifera) and vespulid wasps (Vespula germanica [German wasp], and Vespula vulgaris [common wasp]). However, these insects are attracted to feeding stations used to support translocated Hihi populations. As contact between bees, wasps, and the endemic fauna of New Zealand seems inevitable, it may be necessary to minimize the numbers of these introduced insects in areas set aside for ecologic restoration.

Sarcoptic mange is a highly contagious skin disease that can have a devastating impact on affected wild mammal populations. There are notable variations in the clinical and pathologic picture of sarcoptic mange among species and among conspecifics. However, the origin of these variations is unclear. We propose a classification scheme for skin lesions associated with Sarcoptes scabiei infestation to provide a basis for a subsequent risk factor analysis. We conducted a case-control study focused on macroscopic and histologic examination of the skin, using 279 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) found dead or shot in Switzerland between November 2004 and February 2006. All animals were submitted to gross necropsy following a detailed protocol. Selection criteria for cases (n=147) vs. controls (n=111) were the presence or absence of mange-like lesions, mite detection by isolation or histologic examination, and serologic testing for S. scabiei antibodies. Characteristic features of mange lesions were scored macroscopically in all foxes and histologically in 67 cases and 15 controls. We classified skin lesions and associated necropsy findings into three types of mange: A) early stage (n=45): focal-extensive skin lesions, thin crusts, mild to moderate alopecia, few mites, numerous eosinophils, and mild lymph node enlargement; B) hyperkeratotic, fatal form (n=86): generalized skin lesions, thick crusts with or without alopecia, foul odor, abundance of mites, numerous bacteria and yeasts, numerous lymphocytes and mast cells, severe lymph node enlargement, and emaciation; C) alopecic, healing form (n=16): focal lesions, no crusts, severe alopecia, hyperpigmentation and lichenification, absence of mites, mixed cell infiltration, and rare mild lymph node enlargement. We hypothesize that after stage A, the animal either enters stage B and dies, or stage C and survives, depending on largely unknown extrinsic or intrinsic factors affecting the host ability to control mite infestation.

Low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses in wild birds are important as they can constitute the basis for the development of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses or form part of human-adapted strains with pandemic potential. However, the pathogenesis of LPAI viruses is not well characterized in dabbling ducks, one of the natural reservoirs of LPAI viruses. Between 21 September 2009 and 21 December 2009, we used real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR), histopathology, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) to study Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) infected with an influenza A/H1N1 virus isolated from a wild Mallard in Sweden. The ducks were either inoculated intraesophageally (“artificial infection”) or infected by virus shed by other ducks in the experiment (“contact infection”). The ducks were subjected to three low concentrations (80 ng/L, 1 μg/L, and 80 μg/L) of the active metabolite of oseltamivir (Tamiflu^®), oseltamivir carboxylate (OC), which resulted in the development of the viral resistance mutation H274Y at 1 and 80 μg/L. The LPAI virus infection was localized to the intestinal tract and cloacal bursa except in one Mallard. The exception was a duck euthanized 1 day postinoculation, whose infection was located solely in the lung, possibly due to intratracheal deposition of virus. The intestinal infection was characterized by occasional degenerating cells in the lamina propria and presence of viral antigen as detected by IHC, as well as positive q-PCR performed on samples from feces and intestinal contents. Histopathologic changes, IHC positivity, and viral shedding all indicated that the infection peaked early, around 2 days postinfection. Furthermore, more viral antigen and viral RNA were detected with IHC and q-PCR in the proximal parts early in the infection. There was no obvious difference in the course of the infection in artificial versus contact infection, when the level of OC was increased from 80 ng/L to 1 μg/L (based on IHC and q-PCR), when the level of OC was increased to 80 μg/L, or when the resistance mutation H274Y developed (based on q-PCR).

Lead-based rifle bullets, used in game hunting and recreational shooting, fragment when striking bone and soft tissues. Lead fragments may be ingested by birds scavenging offal piles or nonretrieved carcasses and therefore pose a poisoning risk. We captured and sampled 74 Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in southwestern Montana, USA, from 2008 to 2010 to evaluate levels of lead, mercury, selenium, and 13 other trace elements in blood and feathers. Lead was detected in blood of most (97%, n=70) eagles; mean blood level was 0.26 parts per million (ppm). Most eagles (65%) had background levels (<0.2 ppm), 29% had elevated levels (0.2–0.5 ppm), 13% had chronic levels (0.51–1.0 ppm), and 3% had acute levels (>1.0 ppm) in blood. Lead in blood decreased from winter to spring. Resident eagles had higher lead levels than eagles of unknown residency. Mercury was detected in few eagles, whereas selenium was detected in all, but at a low level (0.36 ppm). Other chemical elements in blood were at low or biologically appropriate levels. Lead in feathers (n=29) was correlated with blood lead (P=0.010), as was mercury in blood and feathers (n=48; P=0.003). Concentrations of lead and mercury in feathers were higher in adults than in juveniles and immatures (P<0.016) and both elements tended to increase with age. Selenium in feathers (n=48) appeared stable across plumage classes. Although detection rates of lead in blood of eagles captured in spring increased from 1985–1993 to 2008–2010, mean levels decreased (P<0.023) between periods, as did proportions of eagles exhibiting above background levels (>0.2 ppm; P<0.02).

The prevalence of orthopoxviruses (OPXV) among wildlife, including monkeypox virus (MPXV), remains largely unknown. Outbreaks of human monkeypox in central Africa have been associated with hunting, butchering, and consuming infected forest animals, primarily rodents and primates. Monkeypox cases have not been reported in east Africa, where human contact with wildlife is more limited. Whether this lack of human disease is due to the absence of MPXV in rodents is unknown. However, testing of wildlife beyond the known geographic distribution of human cases of monkeypox has rarely been conducted, limiting our knowledge of the natural distribution of MPXV and other OPXV. To improve our understanding of the natural distribution of OPXV in Africa and related risks to public health, we conducted a serosurvey of peridomestic rodents (Rattus rattus) in and around traditional dwellings in Kabarole District, Uganda, from May 2008 to July 2008. We tested for OPXV antibody in areas free of human monkeypox. Sera from 41% of the R. rattus individuals sampled reacted to OPXV-specific proteins from multiple, purified OPXV samples, but did not react by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The specific OPXV could not be identified because poxvirus DNA was undetectable in corresponding tissues. We conclude that an OPXV or a similar poxvirus is circulating among wild rodents in Uganda. With the known geographic range of OPXV in rodents now increased, factors that dictate OPXV prevalence and disease will be identified.

Capture data from long-term, mark-recapture studies were used to evaluate movements of North American deermice (Peromyscus maniculatus) on mark-recapture webs in Colorado with respect to Sin Nombre virus (SNV) infection status, age, sex, and trapping site. Latitude and longitude coordinates for each capture during the approximately 12-yr study were used to produce an individual minimum convex polygon (MCP) area representing the movements (not home range) of an individual mouse over time. These MCP areas were compared by SNV infection status (as determined by the presence of antibody), age, and sex. Antibody-negative deermice had significantly larger mean MCP areas than did antibody-positive mice. No differences in MCP area were found between male and female mice (either positive or negative). The smaller MCP areas of antibody-positive mice correspond to decreased movement by SNV-infected deermice on the trapping webs. These findings may indicate that SNV has a negative effect on movement, perhaps by reducing the health of infected deermice.

We isolated a macropodid herpesvirus from a free-ranging eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteous) displaying clinical signs of respiratory disease and possibly neurologic disease. Sequence analysis of the herpesvirus glycoprotein G (gG) and glycoprotein B (gB) genes revealed that the virus was an alphaherpesvirus most closely related to macropodid herpesvirus 2 (MaHV-2) with 82.7% gG and 94.6% gB amino acid sequence identity. Serologic analyses showed similar cross-neutralization patterns to those of MaHV-2. The two viruses had different growth characteristics in cell culture. Most notably, this virus formed significantly larger plaques and extensive syncytia when compared with MaHV-2. No syncytia were observed for MaHV-2. Restriction endonuclease analysis of whole viral genomes demonstrated distinct restriction endonuclease cleavage patterns for all three macropodid herpesviruses. These studies suggest that a distinct macropodid alphaherpesvirus may be capable of infecting and causing disease in eastern grey kangaroos.

Although West Nile Virus (WNV) has not been reported in Hawai‘i, eventual introduction appears unavoidable with potential adverse effects on avian species. Nēnē (Branta sandvicensis) are endemic endangered Hawaiian geese that are susceptible to WNV. We demonstrate that a vaccine developed against WNV for humans (WN-80E) is also highly immunogenic in Nēnē and does not produce adverse biologic effects. Six captive, nonbreeding Nēnē were immunized with two 10-μg doses (4 wk apart) of the WN-80E recombinant protein adjuvanted with Montanide ISA720. Two Nēnē were similarly injected with “mock” preparation as controls. Blood samples were collected before the first dose, then 2 wk and 6 mo after the second dose. WNV-specific antibody titers were determined by an endpoint enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. An unpaired t-test demonstrated significantly higher geometric mean titers for immunized vs. control groups 2 wk after dose 2 (4,129 and 100, respectively, P=0.010) and 6 mo after dose 2 (246 and 63, respectively, P=0.002). Daily observations revealed no swelling at the site of injection and no serious adverse biological effects from the immunization. The vaccine containing the WN-80E and Montanide ISA720 adjuvant appears to be safe and immunogenic in Nēnē. This protein-based WNV vaccine may be safer for use in Hawai‘i than killed virus and live chimeric or recombinant canarypox-vectored vaccines because it cannot cause disease.

We analyzed 927 wild boars (Sus scrofa) in southwestern Spain during the hunting seasons of 2004/2005 to 2008/2009. Respiratory tracts were examined for lung nematodes (Metastrongylus spp.). The prevalence of Metastrongylus spp. was 41.1%. The most frequently isolated species were Metastrongylus apri (71.4%), Metastrongylus pudendotectus (28.0%), and Metastrongylus salmi (0.6%). Prevalence and infection intensity were greater in young animals (<1 yr old) than in older animals. There were no significant differences in prevalence between sexes. Prevalence and intensity of infection were higher in areas of high altitude and high rainfall.

Viruses of the family Polyomaviridae infect a wide variety of avian and mammalian hosts with a broad spectrum of outcomes including asymptomatic infection, acute systemic disease, and tumor induction. In 2010, intranuclear viral inclusion bodies were identified in trophoblasts of a single northern fur seal (NFS; Callorhinus ursinus) placenta from a presumed healthy birth on St. Paul Island, Alaska. On transmission electron microscopy, virions were approximately 40 nm in diameter and were arranged in paracrystal-line arrays within the nucleus. The tissue was positive for the polyomaviral major capsid gene (VP1) by PCR, and the sequenced product revealed a novel Orthopolyomavirus. Twenty-nine additional NFS placentas, devoid of viral inclusions on histologic examination, were tested for polyomavirus by PCR; all were negative. The significance of this novel virus for the infected animal is unknown, but the virus does not appear to be very prevalent within the placentas from newborn northern fur seal pups.

To identify carriers of Leptospira spp. in Argentina, wild animals were trapped in Buenos Aires Province during three nights, capturing 12 Didelphis albiventris (white-eared opossum), six Chaetophractus villosus (big hairy armadillo), five Lycalopex griseus (South American gray fox), and two Conepatus chinga (Molina’s hog-nosed skunk). All were tested by microscopic agglutination test, and five (two gray foxes, two armadillos, and one skunk) were positive for Leptospira interrogans serovars Canicola and Icterohaemorrhagiae, L. borgpetersenii serovar Castellonis, and L. kirschneri serovar Grippotyphosa, at titers of 1:50 and 1:100. Kidney tissue from all animals was cultured, and one isolate of L. interrogans from a gray fox was obtained. Hamsters inoculated with the isolate died after 6 days with no macroscopic lesions at necropsy. However, histologic examination revealed glomerulonephritis, interstitial nephritis, and pneumonia. The Leptospira strain from the South American gray fox was analyzed serologically and its pathogenicity was established. Genotyping through multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis showed that the strain was a new genotype related to the L. interrogans serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae.

In 2009, a novel poxvirus was identified in a North American red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) from Yukon, Canada. Initial molecular analyses indicated that this virus was likely to be distinct from all other known mammalian poxviruses, including those previously associated with disease in tree squirrels—squirrel fibroma virus in North America and squirrelpox virus in the UK (UK SQPV). We characterize the Canadian squirrelpox virus (Canadian SQPV) using DNA sequence analysis and negative-contrast transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Sequence analysis revealed that the Canadian SQPV is distinct from all known mammalian poxviruses but most closely related to the parapoxviruses, followed by UK SQPV. In contrast, TEM showed that the ultrastructure of Canadian SQPV is distinct from that of the parapoxviruses and UK SQPV but indistinguishable from that of other chordopoxviruses (a morphological group that includes the orthopoxviruses and leporipoxviruses). Overall, our analyses suggest a potential evolutionary relationship between UK SQPV and Canadian SQPV and supports our assertion that the Canadian virus represents a newly identified poxvirus in North American tree squirrels.

Most surveillance programs for avian influenza (AI) virus in wild birds utilize molecular tests such as real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RRT-PCR) or virus isolation (VI) in embryonating chicken eggs. To provide insight into the relationship between positive diagnostic test results and infectivity for an avian host, we challenged Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) with Mallard-derived cloacal swab field samples found positive by VI or RRT-PCR. Six of 11 samples that were both RRT-PCR positive and VI positive infected Mallards. Sample infectivity for Mallards appeared to be dependent on concentration of infectious virus in the sample; five of the six samples that replicated in Mallards had a measurable virus titer, whereas four of the five samples that did not infect Mallards had titers below the limit of detection (10^0.9 median embryo infectious dose/0.2 mL). None of seven samples that were RRT-PCR positive and VI negative infected Mallards. These results indicate that embryonating chicken eggs are a sensitive diagnostic tool for detecting Mallards excreting infectious AI virus at a high enough concentration to infect another Mallard; however, not all cloacal swab field samples that are positive by VI or RRT-PCR are infective to another Mallard. Additionally, our results indicate that Mallards are susceptible to Mallard-origin AI viruses that have not been propagated in embryonating chicken eggs and that some of these virus strains can infect birds at titers that are lower than those typically used in experimental challenge studies. These data highlight a need to examine the effects of using egg-propagated AI viruses in experimental trials.

Five cervid species in Oregon, USA were tested with a serum neutralization assay for antibody to deerpox virus (DPV). None of the 50 elk (Cervus elaphus ssp. roosevelti and nelsonii) had detectable antibody. Prevalence of antibody to DPV in the remaining species was: 52% (n=55) in black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), 32% (n= 59) in mule deer (O. hemionus hemionus), and 36% (n=50) in Columbian white-tailed deer (O. virginianus leucurus), with an overall antibody prevalence of 40.2% (n=164) for Odocoileus spp. Antibody-positive animals were identified throughout the state with no statistically significant differences among geographic regions. No statistically significant gender or age-related differences in antibody prevalence were demonstrated at either the genus or species level. This serosurvey indicates that exposure to DPV is common in Odocoileus populations in Oregon. Given the low rates of observed DPV-related disease, this high antibody prevalence suggests a pathogen of low virulence.

The control of rabies in raccoons (Procyon lotor) and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) in North America has been conducted mainly through aerial distribution of oral vaccine-baits. The effectiveness of the vaccine-bait used is therefore of prime importance for disease eradication. In a previous field comparison between the ONRAB^® bait in the province of New Brunswick, Canada, and RABORAL V-RG^® bait in the state of Maine, USA, the ONRAB bait produced a higher percentage of antibody-positive raccoons under nearly identical bait distribution for the two vaccines. The main objective of the present study was to conduct a similar cross-border comparison of these two vaccine-baits using raccoon sera collected during post–oral rabies vaccination monitoring in Québec, Canada, and Vermont, USA, where ONRAB and V-RG, respectively, were distributed aerially at a targeted density of 150 baits/km². A comparison of the equivalency of two serologic tests used in Canada and the USA was also conducted using sera from raccoons and striped skunks. Rabies virus neutralization assay (USA) yielded similar results to the competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Canada), with agreement between the two tests of 92% for raccoon sera and 96% for skunk sera. With both assays, the percentage of antibody-positive raccoons was greater with ONRAB (51%, n=265) than with V-RG (38%, n=66). These new results support the conclusion from the previous study, that ONRAB vaccine-baits may be more effective for the control of rabies in raccoons.

Hematology and plasma biochemistry values were determined in 92 free-living Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis) chicks at Jeziorsko reservoir, central Poland. Percentage distribution of leukocytes, packed cell volume, plasma concentrations of hemoglobin and basic biochemical parameters were evaluated. These values may be treated as reference ranges for free-living Great Cormorant nestlings.

Chytridiomycosis-induced mortalities often occur upon the emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) in naïve amphibian populations. We report chytridiomycosis-associated mortalities in the wild of the coqui (Eleutherodactylus coqui), a declining direct-developing frog with persistent Bd infections. These findings provide additional evidence of decreased host defenses during cool-dry seasons in Puerto Rico.

Sera from 102 wild raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) were screened for antibodies to canine parvovirus (CPV) and influenza A virus (IAV) in South Korea. Sixteen samples were antibody positive for CPV and all samples were negative for IAV antibodies.

A free-ranging Mexican gray wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) suffered intestinal rupture following ingestion of an insecticidal cattle ear tag. Subsequent organophosphate toxicosis as a cause of the rupture was speculated. Insecticidal ear tags could represent a poisoning risk in canids and other wildlife scavengers.