In June and July 1995, 98 breeding common terns (Sterna hirundo) were captured, weighed, and bled as a part of ongoing research on the population health and reproductive biology of this species of special concern. Packed cell volume, total and differential white blood cell counts, and blood smears were obtained. Blood smears from 75 terns were examined. No hemoparasites were found. There were some significant differences among hematologic parameters in birds from different islands, and between birds nesting earlier versus later in the season, but there were no significant differences associated with body mass, sex, or age. The absence of hemoparasites in the blood smears of these terns is noteworthy, especially because other studies of seabirds (including Charadriiformes) have revealed low prevalences of hematozoa.

Thirty-three captive leopard cats, Leopardus tigrinus, were anesthetized with xylazine (1–2 mg/kg) and ketamine (10 mg/kg), and electrocardiograph (ECG) tests were recorded in all leads with 1 cm  =  1 mV sensibility and 25 mm/sec speed repeating DII lead at 50 mm/sec speed with the same sensibility. Results expressed by mean and standard deviation were: heart rate (HR)  =  107 ± 17 (bpm); P-wave  =  0.048 ± 0.072 (s) × 0.128 ± 0.048 (mV); PR interval  =  0.101 ± 0.081 (s); QRS compound  =  0.053 ± 0.012 (s) × 1.446 ± 0.602 (mV); QT interval  =  0.231 ± 0.028 (s); R-wave (CV₆LL)  =  1.574 ± 0.527 (mV); R-wave (CV₆LU)  =  1.583 ± 0.818 (mV); heart rhythm: normal sinus rhythm (15.2%), sinus rhythm with wandering pacemaker (WPM) (60.6%), sinus arrhythmia with WPM (24.2%); electric axis: between 30° and 60° (6.1%), 60 (6.1%), between 60° and 90° (57.6%), 90° (9%), between 90° and 120° (21.2%); ST segment: normal (75.7%), elevation (18.2%), depression (6.1%); T-wave polarity (DII): positive (100%); T-wave (V₁₀): absent (6.1%), negative (63.6%), positive (18.2%), and with interference (12.1%). Through ECG data comparison with other species, unique features of Leopardus tigrinus' (leopard cat) ECG parameters were detected. Some of the study animals presented with an R-wave amplitude that was indicative of left ventricle overload according to patterns for normal domestic cats (Felis cati). Echocardiographic exams revealed normal heart cavities' function and morphology. The aim of this study was to establish some electrocardiographic parameters of captive L. tigrinus.

Marine mammal researchers and veterinarians evaluate the health of individuals and populations by using observed ranges for blood values. The goal of this study was to establish observed ranges for dependent (0–4 week) and weanling (>4 week) harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) pups that were admitted for rehabilitation at the Marine Animal Lifeline in Portland, Maine from 1998–2003 and to record changes in hematologic and biochemical values as they convalesced. Blood values, measured both at admission to and release from rehabilitation, were quantitatively compared between these two groups. Of the 29 blood analytes measured in this study between dependent and weanling pups upon admission to rehabilitation, 14 were significantly different including white blood cell (WBC), red blood cell (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (HCT), platelets, lymphocytes, monocytes, potassium, chloride, CO2, total bilirubin, calcium, alanine transaminase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase. Between admission and release, 14 analytes had significantly changed for dependent pups including RBC, Hb, HCT, mean cell volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), platelets, lymphocytes, monocytes, potassium, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), total protein, total bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, and ALT. Between admission and release, 10 analytes had significantly changed for weanlings including RBC, MCV, neutrophils, eosinophils, potassium, chloride, anion gap, total protein, total bilirubin, and calcium. At the time of release, six parameters were significantly different between pups admitted as dependent and those admitted as weanlings including MCV, neutrophils, eosinophils, total protein, globulin, and albumin.

The purpose of this study was to determine normal ocular surface bacterial flora, tear production, and intraocular pressure in a captive flock of Humboldt penguins, Spheniscus humboldti. Twenty-eight healthy penguins were studied and equally divided between fresh- and saltwater habitats. The population consisted of 15 female and 13 male penguins, ranging from 3–20 years of age. Following complete ophthalmic exam, 4 penguins with cataracts were removed from the study. Eight penguins from each habitat were randomly selected for ocular surface aerobic bacterial culture. Corynebacterium spp. and Staphylococcus spp. were the most common isolates. Twenty-five organisms consisting of 17 species, and 15 organisms consisting of 9 species, were identified in fresh- and saltwater groups, respectively. Tear production and intraocular pressures were evaluated on 24 penguins with normal ocular exams. The range and mean (±standard deviation) tear production, measured with the Schirmer tear test, was 1–12 mm/min and 6.45 mm/min ± 2.9, respectively. The mean tear production for penguins housed in the freshwater habitat was greater (8.5 mm/min) than those in saltwater (4.8 mm/min). The range and mean (±standard deviation) intraocular pressure, measured by applanation tonometry using a Tono-Pen XL® tonometer, was 10–27 mmHg and 20.36 mmHg ± 4.1, respectively. This data should be utilized as a reliable resource for those involved in avian and zoo medicine.

An unusually high prevalence of uterine changes was observed on necropsy in a group of 169 female Seba's short-tailed bats (Carollia perspicillata). In this case study, 27 animals were affected from 1997 to 2007, representing 16% of the group population. All bats were of an indeterminate age and originated from the same facility, but were housed in three different zoological institutions. Deaths occurred year round. Most animals were found dead, with no previous clinical signs. Clinical signs, when present, included a markedly distended abdomen, extended periods of time perched on the exhibit floor, lethargy, and anorexia. Histologic changes included florid segmental to diffuse endometrial hyperplasia and occasional hemorrhage and adenomyosis. The cause for this condition has not been determined.

A study was conducted to determine the health status of the free-living spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx spp.) population at Wrsan, Al Ajban, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. A total of 90 spiny-tailed lizards, 61 males and 29 females, were examined from June to August 2006. Mean body weights were 1,564.4 g and 809.4 g for males and females, respectively. Mean body lengths were 62.1 cm and 49.4 cm for males and females, respectively. Fourteen lizards were found with abnormalities including abscesses, bite wounds, and deformed or missing tail ends, digits, or claws. Radiographic examination revealed osteomyelitis, arthritis, and healed fractures. Reference hematology and chemistry values were obtained from the 76 clinically normal lizards. Hemoparasitemia included possible new species of Karyolysus and Hepatozoon. The most common oropharyngeal organisms isolated were Escherichia coli, Providencia spp., and nonhemolytic Staphylococcus; and the most common cloacal organisms were E. coli, Proteus spp., Providencia spp., and nonhemolytic Staphylococcus. Ascarids were the only endoparasites found. This is the first biomedical data published for the spiny-tailed lizard.

A radiographic study documented shoulder dysplasia (n  =  43), with varying degrees of malformation of the supraglenoid and infraglenoid tubercles and the coracoid process, shallowing or loss of the glenoid cavity, flattening or loss of the humeral head, malformation of the greater and lesser tubercles, loss of the intertubercle groove, and humeral diaphyseal abnormalities, in northern koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) in the San Diego Zoo (San Diego, California, USA) colony. Retrospectively, historic radiographs (n  =  38) were examined where available. Prospectively, three standard views (lateral extended arm, ventrodorsal cranially positioned arms, and ventrodorsal caudally positioned arms) were imaged (n  =  25). In all radiographs, shoulders were graded as normal, or mildly, moderately, or severely dysplastic. Although affected koalas typically do not exhibit clinical signs, degenerative joint disease may develop and clinical signs treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Where shoulder and hip radiographs were both available (n  =  60), 92% of individuals had correlation between the degree of shoulder and hip dysplasia.

The Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis) is endemic in the Amazonian basin and is the only exclusively fresh water sirenian. Historically hunted on a large scale, this species is now considered endangered, and studies on the reproductive physiology are critical for the improvement of reproductive management of captive and wild populations of manatees. The aim of this study was to verify the viability of androgen measurement in saliva, lacrimal, urine, and fecal samples of the Amazonian manatee by conducting a hormone challenge. Two adult male manatees (A-1 and A-2) were submitted to an experimentation protocol of 12 day (D1 to D10). On D0, the animals received an intramuscular injection of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-analogue. Salivary, lacrimal, urinary, and fecal samples were collected daily (between 0800 hours and 0900 hours) and frozen at −20°C until assayed. Fecal samples were lyophilized, extracted with 80% methanol, and diluted in buffer before the radioimmunoassay (RIA). Urine samples underwent acid hydrolysis and were diluted in depleted bovine serum. Salivary and lacrimal samples were assayed without the extraction step. Hormonal assays were conducted with a commercial testosterone RIA kit. An androgen peak (>median 2 interquartile range [IQR]) was observed in all matrices of both animals, although it was less prominent in the lacrimal samples of A-2. However, the fecal androgen peak (A-1 peak  =  293.78 ng/g dry feces, median [IQR]  =  143.58 [32.38] ng/g dry feces; A-2 peak  =  686.72 ng/g dry feces, median [IQR]  =  243.82 [193.16] ng/g dry feces) occurred later than urinary (A-1 peak  =  648.16 ng/mg creatinine [Cr], median [IQR]  =  23.88 [30.44] ng/mg Cr; A-2 peak  =  370.44 ng/mg Cr, median [IQR]  =  113.87 [117.73] ng/mg Cr) and salivary (A-1 peak  =  678.89 pg/ml, median [IQR]  =  103.69 [119.86] pg/ml; A-2 peak  =  733.71 pg/ml, median [IQR]  =  262.92 [211.44] pg/ml) androgen peaks. These intervals appear to be correlated with the long digesta passage time in this species. The salivary and urinary peaks were closely associated. These results demonstrate that androgen concentrations in saliva, urine, or feces samples reflect reliably physiologic events and are a powerful tool for noninvasive reproductive monitoring of Amazonian manatees.

Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are infrequently performed on Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and few studies have been reported in the literature. The aim of this study was to determine reference ranges of ECG parameters in Asian elephants and to ascertain if age, body weight, and position of the elephant significantly affected the ECG. Electrocardiograms were obtained from 27 captive, nonsedated apparently healthy Asian elephants while they were standing (ST), in right lateral recumbency (RL), and/or in left lateral recumbency (LL). Six-lead ECGs were obtained using novel clamps and long ECG cables (71 cm). From lead I, standard waveforms and intervals were analyzed, including PR interval, QT interval, ST segment, P, QRS, T, and U waves if they were present. One animal was determined to have a previously undiagnosed conduction abnormality and was not included in the study. Most elephants had a sinus arrhythmia in at least one position. With increasing age, there was a trend toward a slower heart rate and significantly longer P waves. Increasing body weight was significantly correlated with longer QT intervals and T waves with lower amplitude. Compared with measurements in ST, LL resulted in P waves and QRS complexes with shorter amplitude, U waves with greater amplitude, PR intervals with shorter duration, and an increased heart rate. Compared with measurements in LL, RL resulted in larger QRS complexes. U waves were most commonly detected in RL and LL. Mean electrical axis calculated in the frontal plane were as follows: standing range −125 to 141°, mean −5°; left lateral range −15 to 104°, mean 27°; right lateral range −16 to 78°, mean 9°. Position-specific reference ranges should be used when interpreting ECGs, and clinicians must be aware of how age and body weight may affect the ECG.

This report evaluates the carotid artery exteriorization technique to allow repeated percutaneous artery catheterization in six brown brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira). Repeated percutaneous catheterization of the carotid artery was possible for periods of 3 mo to obtain arterial blood and monitor arterial blood pressure of deer without risk of arterial rupture. The artery pulse was easily palpable for periods up to 15 mo. Postoperative complication and/or arterial damage was not observed.

The objective of this project was to determine radiographic vertebral heart sizes and electrocardiographic (ECG) and echocardiographic measurements in healthy anesthetized maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus). The wolves, housed at the White Oak Conservation and Smithsonian National Zoo Conservation and Research Centers, were being anesthetized for annual examinations. Cardiac auscultation, thoracic radiographs, a standard 6-lead ECG, and echocardiography were performed on the wolves while they were under general anesthesia. Thirteen maned wolves were evaluated: five males and eight females. Mean age was 6.4 ± 4.4 years (range, 2–13 years). Mean weight was 26 ± 2.95 kg (range, 22–32 kg). Low-grade systolic murmurs were auscultated in three of 13 maned wolves. Evaluation of ECGs revealed a sinus rhythm, with a QRS morphology, and mean electrical axis similar to domestic canines. Radiographic evaluation revealed a mean vertebral heart size of 8.27 ± 0.48 (range, 7.9–8.6). In addition, the cardiac silhouette was seen to elongate, with an increase in sternal contact in older wolves. Echocardiography showed that mitral valve degenerative changes and insufficiency is likely common in older wolves. Visualization of physiologic regurgitation across the mitral and pulmonary valves was common in wolves of all ages. Left ventricular measurements were similar to those reported for healthy dogs, and several variables correlated well with body weight. Two wolves were found to have one to three heartworms in the right pulmonary artery, and degenerative mitral valve disease was determined in maned wolves older than 6 years of age. All of the wolves in this study were on heartworm preventative and tested negative for heartworm antigen at their annual examinations. The results of this study provide reference information for use in the cardiac evaluation of anesthetized maned wolves.

Renal disease is a major cause of illness in captive and wild avian species. Current renal disease markers (e.g., uric acid, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine) are insensitive. Two endogenous markers, creatine and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG), were selected for study in the pigeon (Columba livia). Representative organs from four pigeons were surveyed to determine those exhibiting the highest level of each marker. In a separate study, NAG and creatine from plasma and urine were assayed before and after gentamicin (50 mg/kg twice daily), administration for up to 9 days. Observer-blinded pathologic scoring (five saline solution controls, 17 treated birds) was used to verify the presence of renal disease that corresponded to marker increases. The first study revealed that kidney tissue had the highest NAG activity (by approximately six times), and pectoral muscle had the most creatine (>900 times). In response to gentamicin, plasma creatine (>five times) and NAG increased (approximately six times), which paralleled uric acid (>10 times). Urine creatine (approximately 60 times) and NAG increased dramatically (approximately 50 times) in response to gentamicin. In conclusion, NAG, especially in the urine, may be of value to noninvasively detect renal toxin exposures and to monitor potentially nephrotoxic drugs, and might be of value to screen free-ranging birds in large exhibits or in the wild by assaying fresh urate samples at feeding stations.

Heavy metal toxicosis is a well-known phenomenon in wild, captive-animal, and domestic animal medicine. However, the occurrence among reptiles is not well documented. One reason for this is the lack of information regarding reference blood and tissue levels of heavy metals in reptiles. To determine normal blood lead, plasma zinc, and liver lead and zinc concentrations, blood and liver samples were collected from 4 adult and 16 juvenile, healthy green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Lead and zinc levels were measured using atomic absorption spectroscopy. Using the mean ± two SD as the normal reference range, the present study suggests the following for captive common green iguana: 1) whole blood lead level: 0.06 ± 0.06 µg/ml; 2) plasma zinc level: 2.68 ± 1.66 µg/ml; 3) liver lead level (wet-weight basis): <1.0 ± 0.0 µg/g; 4) liver lead level (dry-weight basis): <3.0 ± 0.0 µg/g; 5) liver zinc level (wet-weight basis): 24.9 ± 11.6 µg/g; and 6) liver zinc level (dry-weight basis): 83.4 ± 44.6 µg/g. These values are fairly consistent with published reference levels in other mammalian and avian species.

The disposition kinetics of marbofloxacin at a single dose of 2 mg/kg bodyweight were determined in a crossover trial with five clinically healthy loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after i.v. and i.m. administration. Marbofloxacin plasma concentrations were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (LOD/LOQ 0.05 µg/ml). Data were subjected to noncompartmental analysis. The integrated pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic variables showed that optimal area under the curve (AUC_{0–24 h}): minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) (>125) and C_max: MIC (>8) ratios, as reported for concentration-dependent bactericidal antimicrobials (e.g., fluoroquinolones), were achievable with both a once daily i.v. or i.m. dose for microorganisms with MIC ≤ 0.5 µg/ml, while a C_max: MIC > 8 for MIC ≥ 1 µg/ml was achievable only after the i.v. administration. The absence of adverse reactions in the animals after i.v. or i.m. administration of marbofloxacin and the favorable pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic properties after a single dose of 2 mg/kg suggest the possibility of its safe and effective clinical use in loggerhead sea turtles.

Aspergillus spp. fungal infections are the most common cause of morbidity and mortality in captive penguins. Itraconazole has been the drug of choice for both therapeutic and prophylactic treatment; however, the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters can be highly variable in different species, and it has not been evaluated in penguins. In this study, four preliminary steady-state trials were performed to compare two oral formulations of itraconazole (commercial capsules compared with generic bulk compounded powder) at two different dosages (6 or 12 mg/kg once a day) administered in fish to small groups of captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Building on this data, a final steady-state trial was performed with the use of a 7 mg/kg oral dosage twice a day of commercial capsules given in fish to a group of 15 penguins. With sparse sampling, blood was drawn for testing from small subsets of each treatment group at 4–7 time points in the 24-hr period after the final dose of itraconazole on day 14. Steady-state plasma concentrations of itraconazole and hydroxyitraconazole, the major metabolite, were determined by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Treatment with the generic bulk compounded product resulted in plasma levels of itraconazole that were undetectable for 26 out of 30 blood samples, compared with seven out of 20 blood samples for the commercial product at the same dosage. On the basis of study results, an estimated oral dosage of either 8.5 mg/kg twice a day or 20 mg/kg once a day of the commercial itraconazole capsules given in fish would produce adequate steady-state therapeutic blood levels in Humboldt penguins.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a public health problem worldwide, and apart from infecting humans, HBV has been found in nonhuman primates. This study investigated the prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis D virus (HDV) among nonhuman primates in Taiwan, an area where human HBV remains endemic. Serum samples from 286 captive nonhuman primates (i.e., 32 great apes [Pan troglodytes and Pongo pygmaeus], 42 gibbons [Hylobates sp. and Nomascus sp.], and 212 Cercopithecidae monkeys) were collected and tested for the presence of HBV- and HDV-specific serologic markers. None of the Cercopithecidae monkeys were reactive against serologic markers of HBV. In contrast, 21.9% (7/32) of great apes and 40.5% (17/42) of gibbons tested positive for at least one serologic marker of HBV. Of these, five gibbons were chronic HBV carriers, characterized by presence of HBV DNA and hepatitis B surface antigen in the serum. HBV DNA was also detected in the saliva of three of the chronic carries. None of these HBV carrier gibbons exhibited symptoms or significant change in serum clinical chemistry related to HBV infection. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete HBV genome revealed that gibbon viruses clustered with other HBV isolates of great apes and gibbons from Southeast Asia and separately from human-specific HBV. None of the HBV-infected animals were reactive against HDV. These findings indicate that HBV found in these animals is indigenous to their respective hosts and might have been introduced into Taiwan via the direct import of infected animals from Southeast Asia. To reduce the horizontal and vertical transmission of HBV in captive animals, the HBV carriers should be kept apart from uninfected animals.

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) was diagnosed at necropsy in a captive aged female pygmy hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon liberiensis), which presented with numerous cysts in both kidneys, the liver, and the duodenum and with one single cyst in the pancreas. There were no premonitory clinical signs of a nephropathy observed prior to its death. Similar findings were made in a male cage mate 6 mo later. Both animals had been wild caught. A literature review revealed that another seven cases of PKD have been reported in pygmy hippopotamuses, and an additional screening of records available from the international studbook for the species revealed yet another six cases. In all cases, aged females were affected, and in several instances, affected animals were related to each other. These patterns indicated familiar transmission similar that associated with PKD in humans and other animals. The disease, and especially the presumptive bias in diagnosis toward females, indicated that the male animal of this report was the first case of PKD reported in a male pygmy hippopotamus; thus, further investigation is warranted. The status of the kidneys with respect to PKD should be assessed (including histology) in every deceased pygmy hippopotamus, and whenever possible by ultrasonography in live animals.

A 20-yr-old male pygmy hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon liberiensis), weighing 250 kg, arrived at Zoological Society London Whipsnade Zoo (United Kingdom) from a captive collection in Portugal. A quarantine health check was performed including a comparative intradermal tuberculosis (IDTB) test. Assessment of the comparative IDTB test at 72 hr revealed a strong positive reaction at the bovine site. Serum was tested with a rapid immunochromatographic assay (TB STAT-PAK®) and was positive for tuberculosis antibodies. The tuberculosis tests were repeated 6 wk later with the same positive test outcome. In addition, a broncho-alveolar lavage (BAL) was submitted for mycobacterial culture. The positive IDTB test and TB STAT-PAK® results were supported by multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA). Based on these results, the animal was suspected to be infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms and was euthanized. No gross or histologic signs of tuberculosis were found at postmortem examination. Mycobacterium interjectum was cultured from the BAL but not from necropsy samples. The antigens used in the TB STAT-PAK® and MAPIA tests are reportedly specific for the M. tuberculosis complex, and so it is possible this animal presented with a latent case of tuberculosis or had a previous tuberculosis infection that resolved prior to testing. Cross-reactions with nontuberculous mycobacteria have been described with TB STAT-PAK® and MAPIA tests. However, Western blotting analysis using serum from this animal did not recognize M. interjectum proteins of equivalent size to the M. tuberculosis-Mycobacterium bovis proteins recognized in the MAPIA. Thus, antigenic cross-reactivity with M. interjectum can be deemed less likely, but other nontuberculous mycobacterial proteins cannot be ruled out. It is therefore possible that false-positive reactions were obtained. These results highlight the difficulty of diagnosing tuberculosis in the absence of pathology and the presence of nontuberculous mycobacteria.

Three immature Sunda wrinkled hornbills (Aceros corrugatus) were diagnosed postmortem with proventricular spirurid nematodiasis. Concurrent severe disseminated larval granulomatosis in other visceral organs was considered contributory to mortality in each case. Clinical signs of nematodiasis were vague but generally consisted of weight loss, anorexia, and lethargy. Frequent antemortem fecal examinations were negative for spirurid eggs. In these present cases, based on routine histopathology, both prophylactic and empirically based therapeutic anthelmintic treatments had no evident benefit in the elimination of the proventricular nematodes. Spirurid nematodiasis may be an important cause of mortality in young hornbills.

Echinococcus oligarthrus hydatid cyst disease was diagnosed in two imported wild-caught Brazilian agouti (Dasyprocta leporina). The cysts were found incidentally during routine examinations and never appeared to cause any apparent clinical signs. Identification of the cysts was confirmed via histopathology. Over a period of 2 yr, the cysts calcified but did not reabsorb. Treatment with praziquantal and albendazole did not appear to affect the cysts. Agoutis are intermediate hosts of E. oligarthrus in the wild, where jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) act as definitive hosts. Caution is advised when working with E. oligarthrus–infected animals because of the zoonotic disease potential.

Ranaviruses are known to cause mortality in a variety of anuran species and have the potential to significantly impact wild and captive frog populations. In this study, 16 captive frogs and toads from the Louisville Zoological Garden were examined for the presence of ranavirus; this group included 14 Cope's grey tree frogs (Hyla chrysoscelis), an American toad (Bufo americanus), and a southern toad (Bufo terrestris). All animals were wild caught and were evaluated via polymerase chain reaction (PCR), while animals that died were also assessed via histologic study to understand the role of ranaviral disease in these specimens. Of the animals that died, 82% were positive for ranavirus via PCR. Multiple swab samples collected over time from live tree frogs were positive for ranavirus via PCR. These findings reveal that ranaviral infection in captive adult anurans may occur without clinical signs or consistent histopathologic lesions.

A 46-yr-old female Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelli) was first diagnosed with pericardial effusion in July 2006. Pericardiocentesis performed in January 2007 only provided short-term relief. In May 2007, a pericardial-peritoneal window was created using a transabdominal subxiphoid pericardiostomy technique, providing immediate and long-term relief. Seven months later, the orangutan was euthanized due to worsening heart failure, and no pericardial effusion was present. Transabdominal subxiphoid pericardiostomy offers a straightforward surgical approach that can provide significant relief in cases of chronic pericardial effusion in great apes.

A polar bear (Ursus maritimus) housed at the Toronto Zoo presented with acute-onset, nonambulatory paraparesis. Physical examination 24 hr after onset was otherwise unremarkable, spinal radiographs looked normal, and blood tests indicated mild dehydration. With continued deterioration in its general condition, euthanasia was elected a day later. Necropsy did not reveal a cause for the major presenting clinical signs. Serum collected at the time of initial examination was positive for West Nile virus (WNV) antibodies in a serum neutralization assay and at the time of euthanasia was positive in both a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and in a plaque reduction neutralization assay. The major microscopic finding was a mild-to-moderate nonsuppurative meningoencephalomyelitis. WNV was not detected by immunohistochemistry in brain or spinal cord or by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and cell culture of brain and kidney, but it was isolated and identified by RT-PCR in second passage cell culture of spleen. Retrospective immunohistochemistry on spleen revealed rare antigen-positive cells, probably macrophages. Prevention of exposure to potentially WNV-infected mosquitoes or vaccination of captive bears against WNV should be considered.

An adult, captive eastern spiny softshell turtle (Apalone spinifera spinifera) was examined for a 4-day history of lethargy and plastron discoloration. The turtle was obtunded and had pale mucous membranes, hemorrhagic nasal discharge, and petechiae on all limbs. The turtle was euthanized due to its grave condition. Necropsy revealed hemorrhagic coelomic effusion, petechiae on the serosal surfaces of the intestinal tract, and bilaterally hemorrhagic lungs. Histologic examination revealed numerous emboli of bacteria associated with fibrinocellular thrombi throughout the blood vessels of multiple tissues. The bacteria in the thrombi were slender bacilli that stained intensely acid fast. Culture of the coelomic fluid yielded Mycobacterium chelonae. Although mycobacteriosis in reptiles is typically a chronic, granulomatous disease, this case demonstrates that mycobacteriosis should be considered in reptiles presenting with acute, nongranulomatous disease. This case also describes clinically apparent hemorrhage due to disseminated intravascular coagulation, which is rarely described in chelonians.

A 9-yr-old male Basilisk lizard (Basilicus plumifrons) with a history of painful and limited mobility for approximately 4 mo, which had seemed to be more pronounced in the front limbs, was presented for necropsy. The animal had exhibited moderate weight loss and anorexia before euthanasia. Postmortem examination revealed yellow-to-white, soft-to-semifirm nodules within the periarticular fascia and musculature of the left and right shoulder joints, hip joints, and stifle joints. Several other joints, including the left and right tarsi, left and right elbow joints, and the left carpus had calcified, white material present on the articular surfaces. Histopathologic evaluation of representative sections of all organs and the joints confirmed tophaceous articular gout and articular pseudogout. The differentiation between articular gout and pseudogout was based on histologic appearance, histochemical staining for calcium, and birefringence under polarized light.

A free-ranging gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) presented for trauma and blindness. Fibrinous exudate obscured visualization of the globes. This exudative crust extended from the conjunctival fornices through the palpebral fissure and was manually removed. Ophthalmic examination revealed bilateral corneal ulcerations and scarring and phthisis bulbi of the left globe. Histology of the crust revealed a necrotic conjunctivitis with intralesional fungal hyphae. Culture of the corneal ulcer of the left eye isolated moderate growth of a mixed fungal flora consisting of Curvularia sp. and Aspergillus sp. Miconazole ophthalmic solution was administered and the ulcers in both eyes healed, but corneal edema continued. After 2 mo of treatment with miconazole, tramadol, acetylcysteine, hypertonic saline ointment, artificial tears, and hypertonic saline flushes, the right eye was normal with only a small scar. The left eye remained phthisical. This is the first report of fungal keratitis in a wild reptile and a gopher tortoise.

A captive fallow deer (Dama dama) in a zoo was spontaneously poisoned after consumption of Sida carpinifolia. The paddock where cervids were kept was severely infested by S. carpinifolia. The deer developed a neurological syndrome characterized by muscular weakness, intention tremors, visual and standing-up deficits, falls, and abnormal behavior and posture. Because a severe mandibular fracture and the consequent deteriorating condition, it was euthanized. Main microscopic findings were swelling and multifocal cytoplasmic vacuolation in the Purkinje cells. The cytoplasm of multiple cells of the cerebellum, especially the Purkinje cells, stained with the lectins Concanavalia ensiformis, Triticum vulgaris, and succinylated Triticum vulgaris. Diagnostic possibilities such as bovine diarrhea virus, rabies, and transmissible spongiform encephalopathy were excluded. The report focuses on the risk of maintaining S. carpinifolia populations in zoo enclosures of wild herbivores.

Capillaria hepatica was detected by histopathologic diagnosis in two cougars that were shot in April 2008 in Painel, Santa Catarina, Brazil. Macroscopic analysis of their livers revealed the presence of diffuse granulomas, and the histopathologic analysis indicated the presence of C. hepatica eggs, surrounded by mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltrate, small foci of necrosis, and mild-to-moderate fibrosis. This is the first report of C. hepatica in cougars (Puma concolor) in Brazil.