Wild bonobos (Pan paniscus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), Western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), and orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus, Pongo abelii) are threatened with extinction. In order to help maintain a self-sustaining zoo population, clinicians require a sound understanding of the diseases with which they might be presented. To provide an up-to-date perspective on great ape morbidity and mortality, a systematic review of the zoological and veterinary literature of great apes from 1990 to 2014 was conducted. This is the first review of the great ape literature published since 1990 and the first-ever systematic literature review of great ape morbidity and mortality. The following databases were searched for relevant articles: CAB Abstracts, Web of Science Core Collection, BIOSIS Citation Index, BIOSIS Previews, Current Contents Connect, Data Citation Index, Derwent Innovations Index, MEDLINE, SciELO Citation Index, and Zoological Record. A total of 189 articles reporting on the causes of morbidity and mortality among captive great apes were selected and divided into comparative morbidity–mortality studies and case reports–series or single-disease prevalence studies. The content and main findings of the morbidity-mortality studies were reviewed and the main limitations identified. The case reports–case series and single-disease prevalence studies were categorized and coded according to taxa, etiology, and body system. Subsequent analysis allowed the amount of literature coverage afforded to each category to be calculated and the main diseases and disorders reported within the literature to be identified. This review concludes that reports of idiopathic and infectious diseases along with disorders of the cardiovascular, respiratory, and gastrointestinal body systems were particularly prominent within the great ape literature during 1990–2014. However, recent and accurate prevalence figures are lacking and there are flaws in those reviews that do exist. There is therefore a critical need for a robust, widespread, and more up-to-date review of mortality among captive great apes.

Hepatitis B virus causes horizontally transmitted infectious hepatopathy of primates and may progress to hepatocellular carcinoma. Historically, a small number of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) living in accredited North American zoos have been confirmed with positive hepatitis B serology consistent with exposure. However, the overall status for this population and the interpretation of these individual test results have not been established previously. The current U.S. zoo-housed population (n = 259) was assessed serologically for hepatitis B by surface protein antigen (HbsAg) and surface antibodies (anti-Hbs). Signalment, origin, current health status, history of liver disease, and hepatitis B vaccination history were obtained for each animal. Serologic status was measured directly in 86.5% (n = 224) of these individuals, with 2.2% (n = 5) of the study population determined to be chronically infected by positive HbsAg and negative anti-Hbs status. Additionally, 11.6% (n = 26) of the directly measured population tested were HbsAg negative and anti-Hbs positive, which was indicative of viral exposure. No animals were determined to be acutely infected as HbsAg and anti-Hbs positive. Although these results demonstrated a relatively low prevalence of hepatitis B infection among these chimpanzees, the varied serologic results between institutions underscored the importance of routine serologic testing, especially at times of proposed transfers, and consideration of species vaccination protocols.

Cardiac disease is a common condition in captive primates, and multiple cases in François' langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) were noted on review of the Species Survival Plan studbook. To determine the prevalence of cardiac disease in this species, surveys were distributed to current and previous holding institutions (n = 23) for the U.S. studbook population (n = 216). After exclusion of stillbirths (n = 48), animals less than 1 yr of age (n = 8), and animals housed internationally (n = 2), a study group (n = 158) was identified for this analysis. Robust data was received for 98.7% (n = 156) of the study group and antemortem and postmortem cardiac abnormalities were reported for 25.3% (n = 40) of these animals. Eight animals were reported as medically managed for clinical cardiac disease, and three of these were alive at the time of survey. Six of 11 animals with radiographic cardiac silhouette enlargement antemortem were noted with cardiomegaly on postmortem examination. Of 102 deceased animals in the study group, four were identified with dilated cardiomyopathy, and varying degrees of myocardial fibrosis was observed in 18 animals. Langurs with cardiac fibrosis were found to be significantly older than langurs without cardiac fibrosis (P = 0.003) and more commonly were male (P = 0.036). Screening tests for cardiac disease, such as thoracic radiographs and echocardiography, are recommended to diagnose affected animals earlier, to monitor progression of disease, and to guide treatment, although they should be interpreted with caution because of apparent insensitivity when compared with pathologic results.

Hematology and plasma biochemistry parameters were determined for 34 captive-born California tiger salamanders (Ambystoma californiense). The animals were manually restrained for general examination and venipuncture. This is the first comprehensive report of hematology and plasma biochemistry parameters in apparently healthy California tiger salamanders and may serve as a reference for clinical assessment and future study of this species.

Critically evaluating the pharmacokinetic behavior of a drug in the body provides crucial information about how to effectively treat a patient. Pharmacokinetic studies that exist in fish have primarily focused on drugs used to treat infectious disease, with minimal attention given to analgesic drugs. The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of meloxicam (1 mg/kg) in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) (n = 12). A single dose of meloxicam was administered either i.v. or i.m. Blood samples were obtained at predetermined times after drug injection. Plasma meloxicam concentrations were determined by a validated liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry method, and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was performed. The mean peak plasma concentration after i.m. injection was 1.95 μg/ml. The mean terminal half-life of meloxicam after i.v. and i.m. administration was 1.36 and 1.8 hr, respectively. The area under the plasma concentration-versus-time curve extrapolated to infinity was 11.26 hr·μg/ml after i.v. administration and 5.72 hr·μg/ml after i.m. administration. Bioavailability of meloxicam after i.m. administration was approximately half that of i.v. administration. Elimination was rapid in both the i.m. and i.v. routes of administration, suggesting that maintaining clinically relevant plasma concentrations may be difficult using this dose. This study represents the first pharmacokinetic evaluation of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug in a fish species, and further studies evaluating efficacy are needed.

Blood samples of 86 captive panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) were collected in January and August from the ventral coccygeal vein in order to establish reference intervals of clinical healthy individuals under similar husbandry conditions for plasma biochemistry and hematology for this species. Significant differences were found in phosphorus, glucose, total protein, albumin, and white blood cell count between males and females in both seasons. Calcium, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase varied in only one season between genders. Significant differences between summer and winter values were present in both genders for uric acid, calcium, phosphorus, glucose, total protein, creatine kinase, and albumin. Additionally, females showed seasonal variations for alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase whereas packed cell volume varied in males. Gravid females had significantly higher body weights and increased values for uric acid, calcium, phosphorus, alanine aminotransferase, total protein, and albumin. Cytomorphologic characteristics of blood cells in stained blood films were evaluated to serve as additional parameters for hematology.

This study sought to establish a reference interval for fibrinogen in healthy ornate box turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata). A total of 48 turtles were enrolled, with 42 turtles deemed to be noninflammatory and thus fitting the inclusion criteria and utilized to estimate a fibrinogen reference interval. Turtles were excluded based upon physical examination and blood work abnormalities. A Shapiro-Wilk normality test indicated that the noninflammatory turtle fibrinogen values were normally distributed (Gaussian distribution) with an average of 108 mg/dl and a 95% confidence interval of the mean of 97.9–117 mg/dl. Those turtles excluded from the reference interval because of abnormalities affecting their health had significantly different fibrinogen values (P = 0.313). A reference interval for healthy ornate box turtles was calculated. Further investigation into the utility of fibrinogen measurement for clinical usage in ornate box turtles is warranted.

Hypercholesterolemia is common in psittacines, and Amazon parrots (Amazona spp.) are particularly susceptible. Associations have been demonstrated between naturally occurring and experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis in psittacines. Daily exercise improves lipid metabolism in humans and other mammals, as well as pigeons and chickens, under varying experimental conditions. Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis) with naturally occurring hypercholesterolemia (343–576 mg/dl) were divided into two groups. An exercised group (n = 8) was housed as a flock and exercised daily with 30 min of aviary flight and 30 min walking on a rotating perch. A sedentary control group (n = 4) was housed in individual cages with no exercise regime. A plasma lipid panel, including total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides, was validated for this species. Body weight, chest girth, and the lipid panel were measured at 0, 61, and 105 days. Hematology and plasma biochemistry were measured at 0 and 105 days. Weight and girth were significantly lower in exercised than sedentary parrots at 61 and 105 days. HDL-C concentrations were significantly higher in exercised parrots at 61 days but returned to near baseline by 105 days. There were no significant changes in hematology, biochemistry, or other lipid panel parameters. Results were similar to studies in humans and animal models, in which increased HDL-C was the most consistent effect of exercise on circulating lipid and lipoprotein parameters. The return toward baseline HDL-C may have resulted from decreased participation in aviary flight. Additional investigation will be required to determine the amount of exercise and change in circulating lipid-related parameters necessary to improve long-term wellness in psittacine species predisposed to hypercholesterolemia.

Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) and belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) eat many of the same prey species, occupy the same geographic area, and demonstrate site fidelity in Cook Inlet, Alaska. Although most direct research involving the critically endangered belugas is currently prohibited, studying harbor seals may provide important information about this beluga population. In recent years, harbor seal populations in Alaska have declined for unknown reasons. As part of its stranding program, the Alaska SeaLife Center (ASLC) managed 59 cases of live and dead stranded harbor seals from Cook Inlet between 1997 and 2011. Animals were screened for a variety of diseases and contaminants of concern. Animals were negative by serology to the following diseases: avian influenza, canine distemper virus, dolphin morbillivirus, porpoise morbillivirus, Leptospira canicola, L. grippotyphosa, L. pomona, Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis neurona, and Toxoplasma gondii. Positive titers were found against Brucella spp., phocine distemper virus, seal herpesvirus-1, L. bratislava, L. hardjo, and L. icterohemorrhagiae. All titers were stable or declining except in one animal with an increasing titer for seal herpesvirus-1. Fecal pathogen screenings identified normal flora as well as stable or declining low levels of potentially pathogenic and opportunistic bacteria, though most were of little concern for seal health. In most animals, toxicology screening showed that the majority of tested contaminants were below detectable limits. The level of evidence of exposure to pathogens of concern was low in harbor seals. Although the infectious disease burden and contaminant levels in belugas in Cook Inlet cannot be definitively determined without direct testing, pathogen and contaminant exposure is expected to be similar to that found in harbor seals in this region, as the harbor seals and belugas share the habitat and food resources.

The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The natural distribution of the red panda is in the Himalayas and southern China. Thoracic diseases such as dirofilariasis, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, tracheal obstruction, lung worm infestation, and pneumonia have been reported in the red panda. The aim of this study was to describe the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of captive red pandas as a species-specific reference for routine health examinations and clinical cases. Right lateral (RL) and dorsoventral (DV) inspiratory phase views of the thorax were obtained in 11 adult captive red pandas. Measurements were made and ratios calculated to establish reference ranges for the mean vertebral heart score on the RL (8.34 ± 0.25) and DV (8.78 ± 0.34) views and the mean ratios of the caudal vena cava diameter to the vertebral body length above tracheal bifurcation (0.67 ± 0.05) and tracheal diameter to the width of the third rib (2.75 ± 0.24). The majority of animals (10/11) had 14 thoracic vertebrae, except for one animal that had 15 thoracic vertebrae. Rudimentary clavicles were seen in 3/11 animals. The ovoid, oblique cardiac silhouette was more horizontally positioned and elongated in older animals. A redundant aortic arch was seen in the oldest animal. The trachea was seen with mineralized cartilage rings in all animals. The carina was clearly seen in the majority of animals (10/11). Variations exist in the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of different species. Knowledge of the normal radiographic thoracic anatomy of the red panda should prove useful for routine health examinations and in the diagnosis of thoracic diseases.

Anteater forelimbs are distinguished morphologically from domestic animals, especially due to their unique movement and their natural habits. A knowledge of the pectoral limb anatomy and the proper surgical approach are fundamental to success in osteosynthesis and other surgeries. This study aimed to describe the muscles and neurovascular structures of the pectoral limb and the surgical approach to the humeral shaft of the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla). Dissections of the forelimbs of seven cadavers were performed to identify the major muscles and neurovascular structures. Three of these animals' contralateral forearms were used to simulate the surgical approach to the humeral shaft. Some specific characteristics of the muscle morphology were biceps muscle had two heads, triceps muscle had three heads, and there was an olecranon-epicondylar muscle. To expose the shaft of the humerus, it was necessary to incise the superficial pectoral muscle and separate the heads of the biceps muscle. Due to the anatomical characteristics of the humerus, the craniomedial approach was the most appropriate because it accommodated the anatomical peculiarities of the giant anteater.

According to previous studies in captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) populations, one of the most threatening diseases besides amyloidosis, myelopathy, veno occlusive disease, and gastritis, is renal failure. Contrary to captive cheetahs in North America and South Africa, morphological data concerning renal lesions in the cheetah European Endangered Species Program (EEP) are lacking. This study details the histological characterization as well as immunohistochemical and morphometrical analysis of nephropathies in 35 captive cheetahs from the EEP, which were necropsied between 1985 and 2003. Examination of paraffin- and glycolmethacrylate-methylmethacrylate (GMA-MMA) embedded kidney samples by light microscopy revealed glomerulonephritis in 91%, with a high prevalence for glomerulosclerosis and glomerulonephritis with the histologic pattern of membranous glomerulonephritis (77%). Besides these predominating glomerulopathies, a wide range of other renal lesions, like acute tubular necrosis, interstitial nephritis, calcinosis, and amyloidosis, were present. Pathological expression of collagen type IV, complement C3, fibronectin, and IgG was demonstrated in the glomeruli of the cheetah kidneys with the use of the avidin-biotin complex method. Morphometrical analysis was performed on GMA-MMA embedded kidney samples to obtain glomerulosclerosis index and glomerulosclerosis incidence.

Complete ophthalmic examinations were performed on 160 Macaroni penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus) and 90 Rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome) at eight North American zoological institutions. Cataract prevalence in the Macaroni population was 46.5% (n = 74) of penguins and 42.3% (135/319) of eyes. Cataract prevalence in the Rockhopper population was 45.5% (n = 40) of penguins and 40.6% (73/180) of eyes. The mean age of Macaroni penguins without ocular disease was 7.4 ± 5.8 yr, while that of Rockhoppers was 9.8 ± 6.4 yr. Risk factors for cataract were examined through husbandry surveys completed by each institution and by evaluation of light intensity and ultraviolet (UV) light measurements acquired in each penguin exhibit. Risk factors associated with cataract in Macaroni penguins included age, dietary smelt, hand-feeding, and fluorescent exhibit lighting. Risk factors associated with cataract in Rockhopper penguins included age, dietary capelin, increasing population density, and increasing length of minimum photoperiod. Factors associated with decreased odds of cataract in Macaroni penguins included saltwater pool, monitoring of water quality for salinity, pH, and alkalinity; use of water additives; presence of pool filtration and sterilization systems; use of metal halide lightbulbs; increasing light intensity; and UV spectrum lighting. Factors associated with decreased odds of cataract in Rockhoppers included dietary herring and krill, increasing exhibit land area, pool temperature monitoring, increasing maximum photoperiod, and increasing minimum UV light.

Iron overload disorder (IOD) is a significant health issue for captive black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Measurement of serum ferritin with a validated rhinoceros ferritin ELISA has been used extensively to detect animals in U.S. zoos that are at risk of developing IOD. However, there is limited information on serum ferritin levels in free-ranging black rhinoceros using this same assay. Serum ferritin, iron, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) were determined in 194 black rhinoceros from southern Africa. Mean ferritin in free-ranging black rhinoceros (290.54 ±247.4 ng/ml) was significantly higher than in free-ranging white rhinoceros (64.0 ± 102.4 ng/ml) sampled in this study from Kruger National Park, South Africa. However, there were no significant differences between genders or age groups. Ferritin values varied with geographical location of the black rhinoceros, although this was not clinically significant. Serum iron values were also higher in black rhinoceros (40.4 ± 19.1 μmol/L) compared to white rhinoceros (29.7 ± 10.7 μmol/L). There was no association between ferritin and GGT. This study provides serum ferritin, iron, and GGT values from free-ranging black rhinoceros that can be used for as comparative target values for captive animals.

Nineteen white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) were anesthetized with 4 mg of etorphine hydrochloride; 35–40 mg of midazolam; and 7,500 international units of hyaluronidase for dehorning purposes at a game ranch in South Africa, to investigate this anesthetic combination. Median time to recumbency was 548 sec (range 361–787 sec). Good muscle relaxation and no muscle rigidity or tremors were observed in 18 animals, and only 1 individual showed slight tremors. In addition, all animals received butorphanol i.v. 5 min after recumbency at the ratio of 10 mg of butorphanol per 1 mg of etorphine. Blood gas and selected physiologic parameters were measured in the recumbent animal, immediately before and 10 min after the administration of butorphanol. Statistically significant improvements were observed in blood gas physiologic and cardiopulmonary parameters 10 min after the administration of butorphanol, with a reduction in arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, systolic blood pressure, and heart rate and an increase in pH, arterial partial pressure of oxygen, oxygen saturation, and respiratory rate (all P < 0.005). After i.v. naltrexone reversal, recovery was uneventful, and median time to walking or running was 110 sec (range 71–247 sec). The results indicate etorphine and midazolam combination is an effective alternative anesthetic protocol and produces good muscle relaxation. Furthermore, i.v. butorphanol was associated with improved blood gas values and cardiopulmonary function for at least 10 min postinjection.

Chemical capture is an essential tool in the management and conservation of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum); however, cardiovascular responses in immobilized megaherbivores are poorly understood. Blood pressure and heart rate responses in rhinoceros immobilized with etorphine or etorphine plus azaperone, and the effects of subsequent i.v. butorphanol administration were investigated. Six white rhinoceros were used in a randomized crossover study design with four interventions: 1) etorphine i.m.; 2) etorphine plus azaperone i.m.; 3) etorphine i.m. and butorphanol i.v.; and 4) etorphine plus azaperone i.m., and butorphanol i.v. Etorphine resulted in hypertension and tachycardia in immobilized rhinoceros on initial measurements. Over the 25-min study period, blood pressures and heart rate declined. Heart rates were slower, although the rhinoceros were still tachycardic, and blood pressures lower during the whole study period in animals immobilized with etorphine and azaperone compared with those that received only etorphine. Butorphanol administration resulted in lower arterial blood pressures and heart rates in etorphine-immobilized rhinoceros. In rhinoceros immobilized with etorphine and azaperone, heart rate slowed following administration of butorphanol i.v., although blood pressures remained unchanged. Azaperone reduced hypertension associated with etorphine immobilization, but animals remained tachycardic. Administration of butorphanol to etorphine/azaperone-immoblized rhinoceros lowered heart rate to values approaching normal resting levels without altering blood pressure.

Skin diseases affect millions of people and animals worldwide, including Asian elephants. This study sought to determine the pathogen of skin diseases that occurred in Asian elephants in Chongqing Zoo, China. The isolated fungus was identified through its cultural characteristics, morphology, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. The PCR amplification using common fungal primers (ITS1 and ITS4) determined that the pathogen was 99.7% homologous to Microsporum canis. This is the first report on elephants infected with Microsporum canis in China.

To assess Cryptosporidium infections among wild animals in a zoo located in Anhui province, we conducted an investigation on the fecal samples collected from 44 primates, 41 herbivores, 44 carnivores and omnivores, and 103 birds in the zoo with the use of Sheather's sugar flotation technique and modified acid-fast staining. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in the fecal samples from six primates, two herbivores, four carnivores and omnivores, and seven birds by using Sheather's sugar flotation technique; the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in primates, herbivores, carnivores and omnivores and birds was 13.64, 4.88, 9.09, and 6.80%, respectively. Modified acid-fast staining detected the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in the fecal samples of one primate, three herbivores, 0 carnivores and omnivores, and one bird, and the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in primates, herbivores, carnivores and omnivores and birds was 2.27, 7.32, 0.00, and 0.97%, respectively. Polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment-length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and phylogenetic analysis with the use of the neighbor-joining (NJ) method based on the aligned partial small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene sequences showed that the protozoan pathogen isolated from primates was Cryptosporidium hominis and the pathogen isolated from camels (Camelus dromedarius) was Cryptosporidium andersoni. Subtyping the Cryptosporidium hominis by 60-kDa glycoprotein (GP60) gene phylogenetic analysis showed the Cryptosporidium hominis belongs to the subtype IdA and IbA.

Recurrent eosinophilic granuloma (EG) in two captive eastern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli) was effectively managed with glucocorticoids and antihistamines. The first case was a female and the second case was a male. The animals were housed at separate institutions and initially presented with hemorrhagic oral lesions. Multifocal lesions occurred in the second case. Multiple biopsies were taken from each animal, all of which were consistent with EG. Each animal was anesthetized multiple times for surgical treatment but experienced frequent recurrence. Due to lack of response to therapy and the risks and adverse events associated with repeated anesthesia, medical treatment was initiated in both cases using a tapering dose of oral dexamethasone. The lesions dramatically improved, but would recur frequently after treatment. Hydroxyzine, an oral antihistamine, greatly reduced the incidence and severity of the lesions. Medical management with glucocorticoids and antihistamines minimized stressful anesthetic events in both cases and contributed to the successful management of this recurrent disease. The exact pathogenesis of EG in black rhinoceros remains unknown but response to antihistamines suggests an allergic etiology.

Plant intoxications in wildlife are difficult to diagnose, are overlooked, or are sometimes even neglected. Hence, factors that induce wild animals to ingest poisonous plants have not been sufficiently documented. An outbreak of glycoprotein storage disease in sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), induced by ingestion of the swainsonine-containing plant, common wireweed (Sida carpinifolia), is reported. Nine out of 55 deer held by a zoo in Brazil were affected. The poisoning was characterized by emaciation and neurologic signs followed by unexpected death in some of the animals. Animals presented abnormal consciousness, posterior paresis, and musculoskeletal weakness; less evident were vestibulo-cerebellar signs. Histologically, there was vacuolation of neurons and epithelial cells of the pancreatic acines, thyroid follicules, and renal tubules. Furthermore, in the central nervous system were axonal degeneration, necrosis, and loss of neurons. Three factors may lead to the ingestion of S. carpinifolia by sambar deer: 1) A grazing field with only S. carpinifolia as a source of forage; 2) a large number of animals kept in this field; and 3) a hierarchy within a cervid group in which dominant males isolated and displaced juvenile and weaker adult males, leaving them with access to only S. carpinifolia.

This report describes the pharmacokinetic profiles of chronically administered oral isoniazid and rifampin in one adult male and one adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) that were asymptomatically infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Rifampin's half-life was reduced when compared to previous single-dose pharmacokinetic profiles of healthy uninfected Asian elephants. Both elephants experienced delayed absorption of isoniazid and rifampin as compared to previous pharmacokinetic studies in this species. The altered pharmacokinetics of both drugs in repeated-dosing clinical situations underscores the need for individual therapeutic drug monitoring for tuberculosis treatment.

A hand-reared, 53-kg, female, 30-day-old black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) calf presented for magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography after demonstrating neurologic signs. The rhino was premedicated intramuscularly with butorphanol and midazolam, yielding satisfactory sedation. Induction was achieved using intravenous propofol until the trachea could be intubated. Anesthesia was maintained with sevoflurane in 100% oxygen (mean end-tidal concentration of 2 ± 0.5%). Mean values recorded during anesthesia included were heart rate, end-tidal carbon dioxide, respiratory rate, noninvasive blood pressure, and pulse oximetry. A balanced electrolyte solution of 10 mL/kg per hour was given intravenously. It was concluded that anesthesia was safely induced and maintained with a combination of butorphanol, midazolam, propofol, and sevoflurane. Total anesthesia time was 3 hr, with no perianesthetic complications and an uneventful recovery.

A female Southern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor) calf died unexpectedly at less than 12 hr of age, after an uncomplicated birth and uneventful early postpartum period. Gross necropsy revealed a 15-cm full thickness cleft palate, a patent foramen ovale, and four septal defects ranging from 0.3 to 1 cm in diameter. Histologic findings did not reveal any significant abnormalities. Karyotyping did not indicate any significant numerical or structural chromosomal abnormalities.

Museum specimens representing 12 species of terrestrial carnivores from the northeastern United States were inspected for evidence of healed long-bone fractures. Of 413 individuals, 18 (4.4%) exhibited healed fractures. Thirteen (72.2%) occurred in hind limbs; five (27.8%) occurred in forelimbs. Mustelids had the highest prevalence of healed long-bone fractures (38.8%) of all observed fractures. Within family, 5.6% of Canidae and 2.8% of Mustelidae exhibited healed fractures. Bobcats had the highest taxon prevalence of fractures, 18%. Observational data to assess use of and behavior near roads could provide insight to causes of fracture. Capture in combination with noninvasive examination techniques could be employed to determine incidence of healed fractures in wild populations. Individuals with healed fractures could then be tracked via radio telemetry to determine if these animals behave differently than uninjured conspecifics, and assess long-term survivability and fitness.

Gypsum caves found throughout the Red Hills of Kansas have the state's most diverse and largest population of cave-roosting bats. White-nose syndrome (WNS), a disease caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, which threatens all temperate bat species, has not been previously detected in the gypsum caves as this disease moves westward from the eastern United States. Cave soil was obtained from the gypsum caves, and using the polymerase chain reaction, a 624-nucleotide DNA fragment specific to the Type 1 intron–internal transcribed spacer region of the 18S rRNA gene from Pseudogymnoascus species was amplified. Subsequent cloning and DNA sequencing indicated P. destructans DNA was present, along with 26 uncharacterized Pseudogymnoascus DNA variants. However, no evidence of WNS was observed in bat populations residing in these caves.

An adult, intact male sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) presented for acute caudal abdominal swelling. Treatment by the referring veterinarian included aspiration of urine from the swelling. On physical examination, mild depression, pale mucus membranes, and caudal abdominal swelling were noted. Focused ultrasonographic assessment revealed a fluid-filled caudal abdominal structure and subjective bladder wall thickening. The following day, the sugar glider was severely depressed. Hematology results included hypoglycemia, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, and azotemia. Ultrasonography revealed bilateral hydronephrosis and hydroureter. Despite supportive care, the animal died. Postmortem examination confirmed bilateral ureteral dilation, renal petechial hemorrhage, and dilation of the right renal pelvis. Submucosal edema, hemorrhage, and lymphoplasmacytic infiltration of the urinary bladder, ureters, and renal pelvises were noted. Hyperplasia of the urinary bladder and ureteral epithelium, coupled with inflammation, may have caused functional obstruction leading to bilateral hydronephrosis and hydroureter. This is the first reported case of hydronephrosis in a marsupial.

The aim of this report is to describe the successful surgical repair of a traumatic medial patellar luxation in a 4-yr-old female Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). The animal presented with hind limb lameness. Physical and radiographic examinations were performed under sedation. After diagnosing a medial patellar luxation, surgical repair was recommended. A combination of soft tissue reconstructive techniques was used to repair the medial patellar luxation. The limb was not immobilized postoperatively, but the animal was confined to a cage for 1 mo. The recovery was uneventful and return to normal activity was observed within 1 mo. Soft tissue reconstructive techniques can be used as the only surgical treatment for the repair of a traumatic patellar luxation in both domestic and wild animals.

A 15-yr-old sexually intact female vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) was diagnosed with myositis ossificans traumatica of the abdominal wall. The bat presented with a large ulcerated firm mass along the abdomen. Radiographs and cytology were performed, followed by surgical exploration. The mass was determined to be nonresectable and the bat was euthanized. Histopathology showed severe necrotizing, degenerative, and pyogranulomatous myositis with osseous and cartilaginous metaplasia, fibrosis, and ulceration, which were consistent with myositis ossificans traumatica. Myositis ossificans traumatica is commonly associated with previous trauma to skeletal muscle. Two years prior, this bat had an emergency Caesarian section at this site, which was postulated to elicit a marked tissue response leading to this condition. Myositis ossificans traumatica is infrequently reported in humans, dogs, cats, pigs, and horses. To the author's knowledge, this is the first report of this condition in a bat.

A captive hand-reared adult male snow leopard (Uncia uncia) was treated for anxiety associated with taunting from visitors, the presence of large crowds, and introduction to a female for breeding. Behaviors included shaking, chewing on tail, panting, panicking, and bouncing off the viewing glass, pacing, and avoidance of the female. Combination therapy of oral fluoxetine and alprazolam were administered initially to minimize anxious behaviors while the fluoxetine achieved therapeutic levels. The alprazolam was tapered completely and was only used episodically on two occasions. Although a palatability issue with alprazolam initially prevented consistent dosing, anxious behavior was eliminated and successful breeding behavior was achieved for the first time. After 44 mo of therapy, there have been no anxious behaviors requiring additional medications, two additional breeding behaviors observed, and no evidence of adverse side effects with long-term use.

An 8-yr-old male golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) was diagnosed with diabetes mellitus based on hyperglycemia and persistent glycosuria. Initial treatment consisted of the oral antihyperglycemic medications glipizide and metformin that resulted in decreased blood glucose concentrations; however, marked glycosuria persisted. Insufficient improvement on oral antihyperglycemic therapy and poor feasibility of daily subcutaneous insulin therapy led to an investigation into an alternative therapy with extended-release exenatide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) mimetic, at a dosage of 0.13 mg/kg subcutaneously once per month. Following treatment with exenatide, the persistent glycosuria resolved, the animal maintained normal blood glucose concentrations, and had lower serum fructosamine concentrations compared to pretreatment levels. Based on these findings, extended-release exenatide could be considered as a therapeutic option in nonhuman primates with diabetes mellitus that do not respond to oral antihyperglycemics and in which daily subcutaneous insulin is not feasible.

An 8-yr-old, captive, female golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) with a 6-yr history of hyperbilirubinemia was examined for inappetence and weight loss. Physical examination and blood pressure monitoring under anesthesia revealed hypothermia and hypotension, and blood work revealed hypoglycemia, markedly elevated liver enzymes, including serum alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase, and confirmed the hyperbilirubinemia. A complete blood count suggested chronic lymphoid leukemia. The animal's condition deteriorated during recovery, and the animal died despite aggressive treatment. Grossly, there was micronodular cirrhosis of the liver, severe icterus, and diffuse osteopenia of all examined bones. Microscopic examination of the liver confirmed the micronodular cirrhosis and bone lesions were compatible with diffuse osteopenia and osteomalacia. This brief communication presents a case of chronic liver disease and lesions indicative of metabolic bone disease, also known as hepatic osteodystrophy. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first documented case of hepatic osteodystrophy in the veterinary literature.

A 5-yr-old, intact male red ruffed lemur (Varecia rubra) presented for evaluation as the result of a 1-wk history of lethargy and hyporexia. Physical examination findings included thin body condition, muffled heart sounds, harsh lung sounds, and liquid brown diarrhea. Complete blood count and serum biochemistry showed an inflammatory leukogram, mild hyponatremia, and mild hypochloremia. Orthogonal trunk radiographs revealed a severe alveolar pattern in the right cranial lung lobes with cardiac silhouette effacement. Thoracic ultrasound confirmed a large, hypoechoic mass in the right lung lobes. Fine-needle aspiration of the lung mass and cytology revealed fungal yeast organisms, consistent with Blastomyces dermatitidis. Blastomyces Quantitative EIA Test on urine was positive. Postmortem examination confirmed systemic blastomycosis involving the lung, tracheobronchial lymph nodes, spleen, kidney, liver, cerebrum, and eye. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of blastomycosis in a prosimian species.

Mycoplasma spp. have been detected in birds of prey, but their prevalence in free living raptors and their significance to birds' health need further investigation. Molecular techniques have been increasingly used to identify mycoplasmas in various avian species, due to the fastidious nature of these pathogens hampering traditional bacteriologic tests. This study reports the identification of 23 novel mycoplasma sequences during the monitoring of 62 birds of prey on admission to wildlife centers in Sardinia, Italy. Molecular investigation performed on pharyngeal swabs revealed 26 birds positive to Mycoplasma (42%). Sequence analysis based on 16S rRNA, 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer, and RNA polymerase β subunit (rpoB) gene highlighted cluster assignment and phylogenetic relationships among the identified types, classified within the hominis group. Additionally, Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, associated with respiratory disease in poultry, was identified in 17 birds (27%). Potential coinfection and mycoplasma opportunistic nature present implications for raptor species conservation.

Successful xenotransfusion in an island fox (Urocyon littoralis clementae) has not been previously reported but may be necessary in an emergency. An 11-yr-old male, intact, captive island fox was exhibiting clinical signs of rattlesnake envenomation including hypoperfusion, tachypnea, facial edema, and multifocal facial and cervical ecchymosis. Blood work revealed severe thrombocytopenia (18 K/μl) and anemia (Hct 15.8%). A presumptive diagnosis of rattlesnake (Crotalus sp.) envenomation was made. Initial treatment included oxygen therapy, fluid therapy, antibiotics, antacids, pain medications, and polyvalent crotalid anti-venom. Emergency xenotransfusion using whole blood (45 ml) from a domestic dog was used due to worsening clinical signs from anemia. No acute or delayed transfusion reactions were observed in the fox and the patient made a full recovery 5 days later. Successful xenotransfusion in an island fox using whole blood from a domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) is possible and may be lifesaving.

An adult, female, reef manta ray (Manta alfredi) was evaluated for abnormal swimming and coelomic distention after colliding with a floating dock in an exhibit. Initial clinical signs included abnormal posture and swimming. Clinical signs progressed to include muscle wasting, poor body condition, and coelomic distention. Further diagnostics revealed excessive exhibit substrate within the gastrointestinal tract, gastric ulcers, free coelomic fluid, possible spinal lesion, possible uterine abnormality, and hematologic changes. The ray was treated with repeated gastroscopic examinations to remove substrate from the stomach. Psyllium and mineral oil were administered in gel food to assist with passage of substrate through the gastrointestinal tract. Gastric ulcers were treated with sucralfate. Vitamin B complex, iron dextran, and Yunnan Paiyao were used to treat the anemia. Amikacin and sulfadimethoxine-ormetoprim were administered for suspected bacterial and coccidial infections, respectively. Over the course of 11 mo the ray returned to normal health.

A 3-yr-old male panther chameleon (Furcifer pardalis) presented with bilateral raised crusted skin lesions along the lateral body wall that were found to be carcinoma in situ and squamous cell carcinoma. Similar lesions later developed on the caudal body wall and tail. A subcutaneous implantable carboplatin bead was placed in the first squamous cell carcinoma lesion identified. Additional new lesions sampled were also found to be squamous cell carcinomas, and viral polymerase chain reaction was negative for papillomaviruses and herpesviruses. Significant skin loss would have resulted from excision of all the lesions, so treatment with only carboplatin beads was used. No adverse effects were observed. Lesions not excised that were treated with beads decreased in size. This is the first description of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and treatment with carboplatin implantable beads in a panther chameleon.

The purpose of this study was to establish intraocular pressure values in clinically normal pigeons. One hundred (52 male and 48 female) healthy pigeons (Columbia livia) of six different breeds, ranging in age from 20 to 51 mo were used in the study. Pigeons were gently physically restrained in a dorsoventral position without any pressure or extension to the head and neck. A rebound tonometer with a disposable probe was held horizontally and 4–5 mm from the central corneal surface. Calibration of the device was set to “P.” Overall, the mean ± SD intraocular pressure values of all eyes were 6.1 ± 0.9 mmHg (ranging from 3 to 9 mmHg). Mean ± SD values for left and right eyes were 6.1 ± 1.0 and 6.0 ± 1.2 mmHg, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in IOP between the left eye and right eye or between males and females (P = 0.49; P = 0.74). Analysis of variance revealed that there were no significant differences in the IOP between the breeds (P = 0.22).

Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, can infect a wide range of host species, but limited information exists on the occurrence and implications of infection in wild species. This study describes a natural infection in a population of dorcas gazelles (Gazella dorcas) from a zoo. A 9-yr-old male Saharawi dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas neglecta) tested positive on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and fecal polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Despite treatment with oxytetracycline, the animal did not clear the infection after 6 mo, as confirmed by a PCR test on a semen sample. This is the first report of a Saharawi dorcas gazelle infection with C. burnetii and the first time that C. burnetii was detected in semen from a zoo animal, suggesting the possibility of venereal transmission in captive wild species. This may have major implications for management of zoo populations, particularly in endangered species.

The synanthropic behavior of marsupials of the genus Didelphis in endemic areas of leishmaniasis suggests that these animals may play an important role in the epidemiology of this infection. The aim of the present study was to detect Leishmania spp. DNA in Didelphis albiventris (white-eared opossum) and Didelphis aurita (big-eared opossum) living in forested and peridomestic areas of northeastern Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 25 animals (23 D. albiventris and 2 D. aurita) by cardiac puncture and then analyzed via PCR. Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis DNA complex was detected in 4 (16%) of the 25 samples, whereas no samples scored positive for Leishmania (Leishmania) donovani complex. Our data suggest that D. albiventris participates in the wild enzootic cycle of the L. (V.) braziliensis complex. Therefore, humans living in this area are at risk of infection, because Didelphis species are in constant movement between wild and urban environments.