During 1990–2000, I investigated patterns of fall migration and harvests of the Jackson elk herd. Specifically, I compared the timing of fall migration of the 2,500–4,500 elk (Cervus elaphus) that summered in Grand Teton National Park (GTNP) and wintered on the National Elk Refuge (NER) with elk that used other summer ranges by monitoring 512 migrations of radiocollared elk and by direct counts of elk arriving at the NER. Annual timing of migrations of GTNP elk was related positively to herbaceous standing crop (r² = 0.89) and residual standing crop (forage remaining at the end of the summer-fall grazing season, r² = 0.82) in GTNP. The number of elk on the NER the previous winter accounted for 39% of the residual variation in migration timing. Migrations of elk from higher elevation summer ranges were inversely related to cumulative snowfall through 10 November each fall, whereas elk from GTNP initiated migrations when snow depths averaged <2 cm. Vegetation offtake averaged 62% in GTNP when elk migrated to access superior foraging areas in the NER. Counter-intuitively, early migration of GTNP elk from their national park sanctuary, through a migratory corridor where they were heavily hunted, may be adaptive. Early migrants from GTNP to the NER experienced 4.8% harvest compared to 11.3% harvest (P = 0.037) of elk migrating after the median migration date each fall. Combined harvest and winter mortality rates were lower among early migrants (P < 0.01). I describe how early migration behavior may be selected over time. Such behavioral adaptation on elk ranges encompassing sanctuaries from hunter harvest challenge wildlife managers' skillfulness to manage elk numbers across heterogeneous topographic and jurisdictional landscapes.

Many forms of hypogeous fungi rely on small mammals to consume and disperse their spores. It is well documented in the Pacific Northwest that northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus) rely on hypogeous fungi as a food resource. However, in more northern forests the taxonomic constituents of flying squirrel diets are relatively poorly documented. Using live-capture to obtain fecal samples, I examined dietary fungal diversity from the feces of 44 northern flying squirrels inhabiting variable-aged managed forest stands during late summer in the foothills of west-central Alberta, Canada. Fungal material was found in all specimens, and was identified to order, family, or genera via microscopic spore morphological classification. Twenty-six spore morphologies were found; 1 was identified to order, 4 to family, 13 to genus, and 8 remained unidentified. The most frequently consumed fungi were of the hypogeous form of the genera Cortinarius, Gastroboletus, and Hysterangium. Insect material also figured prominently. In contrast to epigeous-dominated winter diets of flying squirrels found elsewhere in Alberta, here, hypogeous species formed almost one-half of those identified. There is evidently notable consistency in species richness of fungi in flying squirrel diets continent-wide but in more northern forests, diets may shift from epigeous species during winter months to hypogeous species in summer.

We compared the effectiveness of three amphibian survey methods (trapping, light-touch, and destructive sampling) in seeps because the efficiency of these methods in this kind of habitat has not been evaluated previously. Our study sites were located on managed forests in southwest Washington State. Trapping involved setting up an array of funnel traps across the seep, light-touch is a visual-encounter method facilitated by overturning and replacing moveable cover objects, and destructive sampling consisted of searching the seep surface by excavating the top 15 cm of soil and dismantling woody debris. Trapping and light-touch were compared through six, three-week periods, whereas the non-repeatable destructive sampling was compared with trapping and light-touch only during the final sampling period. Light-touch detected more species (P = 0.007), more coastal tailed frogs (Ascaphus truei; P < 0.001), and similar numbers of Columbia torrent salamanders (Rhyacotriton kezeri; P = 0.123) and western red-backed salamanders (Plethodon vehiculum; P = 0.152) compared to trapping. When compared to other survey methods during the final sampling period, destructive sampling detected more species (P = 0.001) and more torrent salamanders (P= 0.005) than trapping, but detected similar numbers of species (P = 0.15) and torrent salamanders (P = 0.21) as light-touch. Light-touch was less expensive in material costs and required fewer visits, but more time (77 vs. 19 person-minutes) per survey session than trapping. Destructive sampling had the same material costs as light-touch, but required more time per survey session (690 person-minutes) than either of the other two methods. Where a repeatable method is required, light-touch seems preferable to trapping because it enumerates a higher percentage of species and individuals, has fewer potential survey biases, and can provide data on within-seep amphibian use.

The purpose of this study was to determine the most defensible taxonomic level (species or variety) of the diatom Cymbella janischii and whether it qualifies as a Northwest endemic. C. janischii and C. mexicana belong to a guild of stalked colonial benthic diatoms that have been responsible for aquatic habitat degradation and complaints of nuisance algae in the western U. S. New information on the morphology, ecology, and distribution of C. janischii was compared to corresponding information for Cymbella mexicana. Although it shares some structural features with C. mexicana, C. janischii is easily distinguished under the light microscope by its much larger size, closer striae spacing, and unique central area. Cell measurements expand the upper and lower size ranges for both species. A maximum length of 383 μm and width of 68 μm qualifies C. janischii as the largest freshwater diatom in the Pacific Northwest. Ecologically, C. janischii prefers much larger streams with significantly lower concentrations of dissolved solids. Over 95% of the records for C. janischii are from the Pacific Northwest, where it occurs with C. mexicana in only 3% of the samples in which one or the other species occurs. Common diatom associates of C. janischii include other Northwest endemics. Morphological and ecological separation of the two species renders interbreeding unlikely. These findings qualify C. janischii as a separate and distinct species, and its restricted distribution confirms its status as a Northwest endemic. Habitats supporting C. janischii and other Northwest endemics should be protected.

Interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca {Beissn.} Franco), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws), and western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) are common associates from the southern interior of British Columbia into the United States. We developed years-to-stump-height and years-to-breast-height models that use site index to predict how long it takes a site tree (a tree whose height growth is indicative of site productivity) to reach stump height (0.3 m) and breast height (1.3 m). These models are useful for planning silviculture treatments, rotation schedules, and determining current and past stand structure. Nonlinear regression was used to develop the years-to-stump-height and years-to-breast-height models from stem analysis data. The fitted models show that years-to-stump-height and years-to-breast-height decline as site index increases. There was more variability in years-to-stump-height and years-to-breast-height over a range of site indices for ponderosa pine than for western larch and Douglas-fir. Equations to predict years-to-breast-height from years-from-stump-to-breast-height were derived from our models. These equations were linear and allow years-to-breast-height to be estimated from increment cores taken at stump height and breast height. The models developed in this study allow for better estimates of total tree and stand age for forest management planning and stand reconstruction.

We assessed oribatid mite abundance, species richness and community composition in arboreal and terrestrial habitats associated with 12 western redcedar trees in the Interior Cedar-Hemlock biogeoclimactic zone of British Columbia, Canada. We extracted microarthropods from 36 canopy litter samples, 36 epiphytic lichen samples from three different lichen functional groups, and 36 soil core samples of the forest floor litter layer. Oribatid mites dominated microarthropod assemblages in all habitats. Total microarthropod and oribatid mite abundances were significantly greater in forest floors and foliose (leaf-like) lichens compared to canopy litter accumulations, and alectorioid (hair-like) and cyanolichen (lobed) groups. Sixty-one species of oribatid mites were identified from the study area. The ten species collected from canopy litter and 14 species collected from epiphytic lichens shared five species in common, whereas only three of the 45 species collected from the forest floor also were found within the canopy system. Principal components analysis and discriminant function analysis differentiated three distinct assemblages of oribatid mites corresponding to the canopy litter accumulations, epiphytic lichens and forest floor habitats. Low abundance of oribatid mites in canopy litter accumulations is attributed to low microhabitat structural complexity, low food resources and low desiccation resistance in these habitats compared to canopy lichen habitats and the forest floor. Epiphytic lichens are the dominant habitat for arboreal oribatid mites in the ICH forest zone, and contribute to the overall biodiversity of the forest system by containing distinct oribatid mite assemblages.

Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) abundance has been of interest to wildlife biologists, as hares are essential prey items for many rare and endangered predators. Snowshoe hare abundance has most commonly been estimated through indices such as pellet counts. While pellet counts may be useful in the areas they are developed and when hares are dense, they notably fail when hares are at low densities. Abundance estimates using capture-mark-recapture (CMR) are often preferred over indices of animal abundance, yet using CMR to estimate snowshoe hare numbers has proven a formidable and expensive task. Sample sizes obtained using traditional CMR techniques are frequently low, resulting in either biased estimates or estimates with unacceptably high variance. Here we derive a suite of 9 microsatellite DNA markers that can provide snowshoe hare individual identification at relatively low cost. We demonstrate that these markers produce no genotyping errors in a captive situation and use the markers to produce individual identification of free-ranging snowshoe hares in test plots in Montana and Idaho.

Suction dredge placer mining is an increasingly frequent activity that may affect the survival of mussels, however, the effect of suction dredge mining on freshwater mussels has received little attention. We quantified the effects of being entrained, exposed, and/or buried by suction dredge placer mining on the short-term survival of western ridged mussels (Gonidea angulata, Lea) and western pearlshell mussels (Margaritifera falcata, Gould) in the Similkameen River, Washington. The primary experimental treatments were entrainment by a suction dredge versus non-entrainment. The secondary experimental treatments were exposure and burial. No obvious physical damage to mussels was observed due to entrainment by the suction dredge and entrainment had no effect on the survival of mussels. All exposed mussels survived the 6-week experiment. However, burial by dredge tailings resulted in the death of a substantial percentage of mussels of each species and no mussels were able to excavate from experimental dredge tailings. Our results have significant conservation implications and emphasize the need for additional research.

Rodent densities were estimated on Mount Usu, northern Japan, 17 years after the 1977–1978 volcanic eruptions. The summit area was completely deforested by the eruptions, and was covered with thick tephra. When the survey was performed, two plant communities developed. One was a forest dominated by Populus maximowiczii, and another was a grassland with a canopy of the large perennial, Polygonum sachalinense. In each plant community, we estimated the abundance of rodents by Sherman traps. The abundance was 5 Clethrionomys rutocanus bedfordiae/100 traps/night in the grassland, and 0 in the forest. This implied that a generalist, C. rutocanus bedfordiae became established in the grassland, probably because of plant community structure, including litter deposits, rather than food resources. The results compared with those from Mount St. Helens suggested that rodent immigration was greatly determined by the scales of eruptions and recovery patterns of plant communities.