In the common eider Somateria mollissima as well as in many other bird species, nesting success has been associated with female reproductive characteristics and predator accessibility to the nest site. In this study, we tested the following predictions on nesting common eiders: 1) female and nest-site characteristics are correlated within a colony, where those with the highest ranked reproductive traits nest where the environment provides best protection, 2) females nesting on forested islands generally exhibit better reproductive traits than females nesting on open islets (hereafter habitats) because the former provide the best nest protection, and consequently, 3) colonies located on forested islands have higher nesting success than those on open islets. During the summers of 1995 and 1996, we recorded nesting success at 270 eider nests on two forested islands and four open islets. Simultaneously, we measured several variables describing nest (nest concealment, vegetation height, distance to shore and density of associated nesting gulls) and female (laying date and clutch size) characteristics. Using factor analysis to relate nest-site and female characteristics, we found a correlation between factor scores within four of the six colonies monitored. This correlation indicated that females with largest clutch size and early laying were associated with nest sites of low concealment that were close to shore. However, female score did not differ with habitat. Nesting success did not differ between habitats when controlled for female and nest scores, but was related to female score, and marginally to nest-site score. Because nesting success was principally related to female characteristics rather than to nest-site characteristics, we suggest that eiders rely on nest attendance rather than on nest concealment to protect their nests. Nesting close to shore may shorten incubation recesses and improve hatchling survival when leaving the nest.

We compared the body mass of adult rock ptarmigan Lagopus mutus shot in autumn in the French Pyrenees (Ariège), the French Alps (Hautes-Alpes) and the Italian Alps (Province of Verbania). Mean body mass of adults was greater in the Ariège than in the Hautes-Alpes both for cocks (466 vs 433 g) and hens (429 vs 406 g), with the body mass of Italian birds being intermediate (cocks 448 g, hens 418 g). The relatively large mass of rock ptarmigan in the Pyrenees contrasts with the geographic trends found in capercaillie Tetrao urogallus and grey partridge Perdix perdix in France. For the last two species, birds in the Pyrenees are smaller than those further north. The site differences that we observed in body mass of rock ptarmigan may be related to differences in availability of high quality foods, particularly ericaceous shrubs. However, at the continental scale within Europe, the body mass of rock ptarmigan appears to be greatest in northern latitudes.

The grey partridge Perdix perdix is an important management concern in the European farmland. Pair numbers severely declined during the 20th century. As a result, the species has been listed in SPEC category 3, i.e. ‘Unfavourable’ conservation status in Europe. The largest population of western Europe occurs in France. Its status there is, therefore, decisive for the European conservation status of the species as well as for the future of the species. Populations of partridges in central northern France have been routinely surveyed since the 1980s for hunting management purposes. In this paper, we use this long-term and wide-scale survey to portray the demographic status of partridge populations. We emphasise the amplitude of spatiotemporal variations in breeding densities. In the 2000s, a number of areas where agriculture is intensive and where the species is hunted still sustain > 50 pairs/km², whereas densities are < 5 pairs/km² in other areas. These low densities are, however, higher than those commonly reported from other parts of Europe. Density levels exhibit large differences at a small spatial scale and show large year-to-year fluctuations which make trend assessment difficult. The 1994–2004 and 1999–2004 trends displayed different patterns; densities increased, decreased or were stable depending upon agricultural region.

During 1998–2001 we studied population dynamics of the mountain hare Lepus timidus in three areas of Finland which were in different phases of the hare population cycle and in different geographical locations. The aim of our study was to examine the survival and reproductive rates of hare populations under different circumstances. Hare numbers were monitored using the wildlife monitoring data. Hare samples were collected by hunters in southern Finland (prolonged hare population low), central Finland (increasing hare population) and northern Finland (declining hare population). The survival rates of both adult and young hares were lowest in northern Finland. Litter size did not differ between the populations, but the proportion of breeding females and consequently, productivity of the hare population was highest in central Finland and lowest in southern Finland. The possible effects of especially the phase of the hare population cycle, condition and size of female hares, predator abundance and weather/climatic factors on the population dynamics of hares are discussed.

Using radio-telemetry we investigated natal dispersal, adult home ranges and site fidelity of mountain hares Lepus timidus in northern Sweden. We captured 48 leverets from 20 litters while these were still suckling and radio-tracked them for up to 37 months. Leverets showed limited dispersal; < ⅓moved far enough to leave the home range of an average adult female. We radio-collared and tracked 73 adult hares to determine annual and seasonal home ranges along with site fidelity. Males had significantly larger annual and winter-spring home ranges than did females. Both sexes, and especially males, had significantly larger home ranges during winter-spring than during summer-autumn. Adults showed strong site fidelity. None of the adults dispersed from an established home range even though some long-distance excursions were recorded, especially for the males during the breeding season in spring. Limited natal dispersal and a high degree of adult site fidelity suggest that dispersal of mountain hares, as juveniles or as adults, occurs at a low rate in the boreal forest during prevailing conditions, i.e. during low densities and in a continuous population. We conclude that the mountain hare seems to be a philopatric species compared with other small game species in the same ecosystem.

After the Common Agricultural Policy reform of 1992 and the application of agro-environmental measures, most EU countries have introduced specific measures for wildlife habitat improvement. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effects of two habitat improvement actions on brown hare Lepus europaeus and roe deer Capreolus capreolus populations in two study areas in the hills of Emilia-Romagna in Italy. The study was carried out from October 1996 to October 1997. Data on brown hares were collected at night using spotlights. Density was estimated at 26 (area A) and 29 (area B) sampling sites. Data on roe deer were collected at 17 sampling sites (fields observed) during 2-hour periods, before sunset and after sunrise, respectively, using binoculars. We recorded 736 brown hares. Brown hare density was higher in study area A (0.27 individuals/ha) than in study area B (0.23 individuals/ha). We counted 153 roe deer during the diurnal surveys. The highest roe deer density was observed in February–March 1997 (0.306 individuals/ha). We used Bonferroni confidence intervals, Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests to compare the densities in different habitats. Brown hares avoided uncultivated fields in both study areas, while they selected habitat improvements in area A and forage crops in area B. Roe deer selected habitat improvements and secondarily forage crops, but avoided uncultivated fields. Our study demonstrates that extensive cultivated fields (maintained or reintroduced according to EU agro-environmental regulations) can play an important role in territories with agriculture retirement and abandonment, acting primarily as a source of food (mostly green forage) for several herbivorous wildlife species.

We studied habitat use and selection, seasonal variation in the use of different habitats, and the factors possibly influencing their utilisation in six male and four female polecats Mustela putorius monitored in a fragmented area in Luxembourg. Deciduous forests appeared to be the most used habitat in summer, whereas grassland and pastures were more often used in winter and spring. Human settlements were frequently used in winter, likely because they provide both food and insulation. The influence of climatic conditions on habitat use was assessed; both rain and temperatures seemed to affect habitat use by polecats. Food habits also showed a seasonal variation with small rodents as the main food item in all seasons, but with amphibians becoming an important prey in spring and summer. Our results suggest that habitat use is influenced by trophic factors and climatic conditions, which confirms the opportunistic feeding behaviour of the polecat.

We executed four mark-resight helicopter surveys during the winter months January–February for each of the three years 1999–2001 at 7–10 day intervals to estimate population size of a wintering elk Cervus elaphus canadensis herd in northern New Mexico. We counted numbers of radio-collared and uncollared elk on a simple random sample of quadrats from the study area. Because we were unable to survey the entire study area, we adopted a superpopulation approach to estimating population size, in which the total number of collared animals within and proximate to the entire study area was determined from an independent fixed-wing aircraft. The total number of collared animals available on the quadrats surveyed was also determined and facilitated detectability estimation. We executed superpopulation estimation via the joint hypergeometric estimator using the ratio of marked elk counted to the known number extant as an estimate of effective detectability. Superpopulation size estimates were approximately four times larger than previously suspected in the vicinity of the study area. Despite consistent survey methodology, actual detection rates varied within winter periods, indicating that multiple resight flights are important for improved estimator performance. Variable detectability also suggests that reliance on mere counts of observed individuals in our area may not accurately reflect abundance.

We studied the altitudinal movements of eight radio-collared female Alpine chamois Rupicapra rupicapra in the Swiss Alps to investigate how air traffic and environmental factors affect daily movements and medium-term altitudinal displacements in winter. Average altitude was often similar during periods of several days depending mainly on snow cover. Daily altitudinal movements occurred at all altitude levels and seemed to be affected more by local topography and habitat structure than by current environmental conditions. In individuals that were above the timberline in the morning, and thus were potentially exposed to air traffic, the first aircraft of a day could induce a downward movement, and a high intensity of air traffic (i.e. many aircraft during most of the day) affected the altitudinal difference that was covered during the whole day. After a downward movement the chamois returned to higher altitudes within a day and the following night, confirming their preference for the open pastures above the timberline. Two groups of chamois that were exposed to different intensities of air traffic, did not differ in their altitudinal movements, indicating a weak effect of aircraft. The daily energy costs of altitudinal locomotion were not considerably increased. We estimate that, on an average winter day, the energy costs of locomotion were not increased by more than 0.1% of the field metabolic rate (FMR) due to aircraft. However, a combination of deep snow and very intensive air traffic may result in a much higher increase in the energy expenditures on certain days. Further reasons for this ambiguous influence of aircraft are discussed.

We aimed to define at a relevant scale the spatial pattern of major vegetation types available to deer in order to qkf1trdiuuucharacterise habitat quality variations within our population area. We analysed data on the timber stand and the shrub layer collected in 1993 in the 2,614 ha Chizé reserve in western France. Multidimensional analyses (Principal Component Analysis and biplot) and a Geographic Information System (GIS) were used to extract most of the variation in vegetation data collected at the 4-ha resolution. At the timber stand level, two vegetation types occurred within the reserve: an oak Quercus sp. stand in the north, and a beech Fagus sylvatica stand in the south. This classification accounted for 29.6% of the total variability of the timber stand data base. At the shrub layer scale, three vegetation types were distinguished: hornbeam Carpinus betulus dominated coppices in the northeast part of the oak stand, maple Acer sp. dominated coppices in the northwest part of the oak stand, and no shrub layer in the beech stand in the south. This classification accounted for 32% of the total variability of the shrub layer data base. The coupled use of multivariate analysis and GIS allowed us to assess classification of forest habitats and appears promising for use in wildlife management and research purposes. This simple and robust tool allows users to account for site variability, and can provide satisfactory spatial representations of habitat potential at multiple scales.

Understanding the impact of human harvest is fundamental to the effective management of many wildlife populations. Such understanding has been elusive because harvest mortality may compensate for other sources of mortality when the mortality process is density dependent. This problem is exacerbated by the ubiquitous positive correlation between harvest regulations and population size: more harvest is allowed when populations are larger. Connelly et al. (2003) studied the impact of harvest regulations on sage-grouse Centrocercus uropha-sianus using three sets of regulations: closed season, 1-bird bag and seven-day season, 2-bird bag and 23-day season. Connelly et al. (2003) reported a generally negative correlation between harvest regulations and increase in number of males on leks for harvest regulations that ranged from a hunting closure to a 23-day season with a 2-bird bag. Because lek sizes were smaller where hunting was closed there was confounding between harvest and population density, making it difficult to distinguish harvest effects from those of population density. Based on a simple simulation the apparent effects of harvest on change in population size observed by Connelly et al. (2003) could be produced entirely by density-dependent phenomena. Additionally, λ (finite rate of population increase) was greater in areas with more restrictive harvest regulations. λ is a ratio of N_{t 1} to N_t, however, and there is a negative sampling covariance between λ and N_t; we expect λ to be larger when N_t is smaller based purely on this statistical fact. The study by Connelly et al. (2003) is an important attempt to study effects of harvest on population dynamics of sage-grouse. We do not argue that either additive mechanisms in survival or compensatory mechanisms in survival or reproduction influence the relationship between harvest and population dynamics of sage-grouse, but that correlation between population size and harvest regulations, combined with statistical issues make it impossible to distinguish between these two hypotheses in Connelly et al. (2003).

Ever since the present phase of wolf Canis lupus population growth began in southern Scandinavia in 1983 there has been controversy surrounding their origins. Genetical analyses have clarified that the wolves originate from the Finnish-Russian populations, but the debate continues about how they came to be in southern Scandinavia, with many wolf-opponents claiming they have been released in a clandestine action. By comparing the geography of Scandinavia to known wolf dispersal behaviour our analysis focuses on whether it is possible for wolves to have recolonised southern Scandinavia without human assistance. From 298 published dispersal distances for North American wolves, 10 were over 500 km, with the longest being 886 km in a straight line. When also including data on actual distance moved, several wolves have been recorded to travel more than 4,000 km, often within only a few months. However, the published data are biased towards short-distance movements. Any wolves travelling from the Finnish-Russian border to the site of the 1983 reproduction would have to have travelled > 1,000 km, with potential routes being overland, or over the ice covered Baltic Sea during winter. From their present distribution, wolves have shown a clear ability to cross areas of sea-ice of up to 70 km. Therefore, it is possible for wolves to have colonised south Scandinavia through natural dispersal, although it requires movements at the extreme edge of what has been documented. As wolves expand in both southern Scandinavia and Finland, the distance between the populations will decrease, although contact will require passing through 500 km of the conflict-full reindeer-herding areas or crossing of the Baltic Ice.