Information about game population states and hunting regulation are important prerequisites in ensuring the sustainability of populations. Voluntary game monitoring has a potential of being an important factor in addition to the monitoring made by professionals. The main method in the monitoring of many game species in Finland is the wildlife triangle scheme (WTS), providing abundance estimates of about 30 species. The WTS is largely carried out by voluntarily participating hunting teams. Regardless of the long traditions in the hunters' monitoring activity and hunting regulation, very little is known about the characteristics of the hunting teams that have been active in the WTS. To gain more insight into the characteristics of the hunting teams at a national and regional scale, we analysed quantitative questionnaire data on various activities of hunting teams collected by the Hunters' Central Organization. A typical team carrying out censuses has a large number of members and large hunting grounds, and its monitoring activity is also associated with the voluntary regulation of the hunting of grouse as well as other management actions. The findings indicate that especially large hunting teams are active in voluntary game monitoring in Finland, but also small groups of motivated individuals can successfully participate in the WTS.

We studied risk-taking behaviour of breeding greylag geese Anser anser in western Poland. Our objectives were to test predictions resulting from the parental investment theory by observing variation in flushing distance for incubating females in relation to clutch size, stage of incubation, nest type and number of human visits to the nests. We found that the best predictor of flushing distance was the stage of breeding; a negative relationship was observed between the number of incubation days and the observed flushing distance. Hence, females showed more risky behaviour (shortening their flushing distance) in clutches with a higher probability of hatching, i.e. in agreement with the parental investment theory. We found only a small effect of clutch size in relation to flushing distance and not in the direction expected from the parental investment theory, i.e. females incubating the largest clutches demonstrated the largest escape distance. This finding may be due to unknown age and experience of particular females which, at least potentially, may underlie the observed variation in flushing distance. We also found that females adjusted their flushing distance depending on nest location and potentially different concealment. We found no effect of repeated human visits. Flushing distance was nearly significantly shorter in unsuccessful females (whose nests were later destroyed) than in successful females. Hypotheses explaining risk-taking differentiation patterns in greylag geese are discussed. Our findings suggest that using exclusively flushing distance (or another single behavioural measure of response to human disturbance) might be misleading and should be used carefully for managing access to wildlife areas.

We carried out a study in four stands of Scots pines Pinus sylvestris at Glenmore Forest and Abernethy Forest, Scotland, to measure distances over which capercaillies Tetrao urogallus avoided woodland close to forest tracks (gravel roads designed for vehicles, but also used by recreational walkers and cyclists) during autumn and winter. Tracks with low and high human use were selected in the two forests, and the presence of capercaillie droppings under trees gave a measure of use for feeding at different distances from the tracks. At all sites, the use of trees by capercaillies was lower close to tracks. The amount of woodland effectively avoided by capercaillies ranged from 1 ha per 46 m of track to 1 ha per 82 m of track at the different sites. Given the high density of tracks at Glenmore and Abernethy Forests (1,950 m/km² in both forests), the percentage of woodland avoided by capercaillies ranged within 21-41%. A likely explanation is that human activity in these small native pinewoods is disturbing capercaillies, and may reduce their carrying capacity. Possible microclimate or predator effects were discounted.

Although scrub cover is generally regarded as an important habitat component of the European wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus, little is known about the species' responses to variation in scrub structure and composition. Such information is required for conservation management of rabbits in Mediterranean scrublands of the Iberian Peninsula (southwestern Europe), where the species is both a key resource for a range of endangered predators and a popular game species. To address this issue, we estimated the effects of variables characterising scrub vegetation on the occurrence and number of rabbit latrines in 60 250-m transects distributed in a 5,000-ha scrubland-dominated landscape in southwestern Portugal. The strongest effect was that of cover by the shrub Cistus ladanifer, which was positively related to both the occurrence and relative abundance of rabbits. Conversely, rabbits showed negative responses to cover by Chamaespartium tridentatum, ericoid and other broad-leaved shrubs. Rabbits favoured scrubs with a low density of woody vegetation at the ground level, but with a dense overhead cover. The herbaceous layer was also influential with positive effects of cover by grasses under the scrub and by forbs at the edge of the scrub. Taken together, our results suggest that conservation management of rabbit habitats in southwestern Portugal should strive to maintain scrub patches with a combination of favourable characteristics, including dense overhead cover but open access at the ground level, a developed herbaceous layer and woody species providing feeding opportunities during the summer period.

Dispersal is a mechanism hypothesized to have evolved to reduce resource competition, competition for mates and inbreeding. Although bobcats Lynx rufus are believed to exhibit high dispersal rates, bobcat dispersal has not been extensively studied due to limitations associated with traditional field research methods. We examined dispersal patterns in a southern Texas bobcat population using eight microsatellites by estimating relatedness within the population and among individuals and observing dispersal events via radio-telemetry. Relatedness among females (r = 0.050, ± 0.042, 95% CI) was significantly higher than among males (r = -0.075, ± 0.031). Pair-wise relatedness distribution for females was significantly different from the expected random distribution and skewed towards 1st and 2nd degree relatives. In contrast, pair-wise relatedness distribution for males was not significantly different from the expected random distribution. Male-biased dispersal and female philopatry were hypothesized to explain the observed patterns in relatedness. Among nine radio-collared females and 12 radio-collared males, two females and six males dispersed away from the study site. This study provides genetic and observational evidence for male-biased dispersal in a solitary felid and is consistent with dispersal trends in mammals.

Information is needed from protected populations of game species to help understand natural rates of mortality, and as a means for comparisons with populations hunted by human beings. Additionally, little is known about red deer Cervus elaphus survival in historic habitat with large carnivores present. During 2001-2004, we estimated survival and cause-specific mortality of 35 red deer in the Białowieża National Park (BNP), Poland. The BNP contains the last remnant of old-growth lowland forests in Europe, and both predator and prey populations are protected from human exploitation. For all deer, survival did not differ among years or seasons. Annual survival of all deer was 56%, and survival rates were similar for adult males (75%) and females (64%), but was higher for adults (71%) than for young (15%). Predation, primarily caused by wolves Canis lupus, was the most common source of mortality (10 of 12 red deer deaths) and contributed most to the differences in survival between adult and young red deer.

Moose Alces alces gigas in Alaska, USA, exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism, with adult males possessing large, elaborate antlers. Antler size and conformation are influenced by age, nutrition and genetics, and these bony structures serve to establish social rank and affect mating success. Population density, combined with anthropogenic effects such as harvest, is thought to influence antler size. Antler size increased as densities of moose decreased, ostensibly a density-dependent response related to enhanced nutrition at low densities. The vegetation type where moose were harvested also affected antler size, with the largest-antlered males occupying more open habitats. Hunts with guides occurred in areas with low moose density, minimized hunter interference and increased rates of success. Such hunts harvested moose with larger antler spreads than did non-guided hunts. Knowledge and abilities allowed guides to satisfy demands of trophy hunters, who are an integral part of the Alaskan economy. Heavy harvest by humans was also associated with decreased antler size of moose, probably via a downward shift in the age structure of the population resulting in younger males with smaller antlers. Nevertheless, density-dependence was more influential than effects of harvest on age structure in determining antler size of male moose. Indeed, antlers are likely under strong sexual selection, but we demonstrate that resource availability influenced the distribution of these sexually selected characters across the landscape. We argue that understanding population density in relation to carrying capacity (K) and the age structure of males is necessary to interpret potential consequences of harvest on the genetics of moose and other large herbivores. Our results provide researchers and managers with a better understanding of variables that affect the physical condition, antler size, and perhaps the genetic composition of populations, which may be useful in managing and modelling moose populations.

Knowledge of the effect of mining developments on caribou Rangifer tarandus is fragmentary. We examined the impact of the Hope Brook gold mine, southwestern Newfoundland, on the La Poile woodland caribou herd on a section of their year-round range. We examined the impact of the mine on caribou distribution during three phases of mine activity (pre-disturbance, construction and open-pit mining and underground mine and mill operation) in five seasons (winter, late winter, pre-calving, calving and autumn). Aerial surveys were conducted on a monthly basis from September 1985 to July 1991. Following initiation of the mine construction, caribou abundance increased with distance from the mine site in all seasons, and caribou avoided areas within 4 km of the site in most seasons. Within 6 km of the mine centre, group size and the number of caribou decreased as mine activity progressed in late winter, pre-calving and calving seasons. Although the impact of the mine was most prominent in the pre-calving and calving seasons, caribou responded to mine disturbance in all seasons. This highlights the importance of evaluating the year-round impact of human-induced environmental change.

The greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros, a large African herbivore, occupies the browser trophic niche. This species has been introduced into selected areas of Texas inhabited by the white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus, a native browser. Based on similar trophic function, potential interspecific competition could exist between these two species. The objectives of our study were to: 1) describe the seasonal diets of greater kudu in Texas and 2) determine if greater kudu show preference for plants that might create competition with white-tailed deer. We documented the seasonal diet and forage preference of greater kudu at Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area from 15 May 2001 to 25 February 2002 by identifying epidermal fragments of plants in faecal pellets. We identified and quantified 49 species of plants eaten by greater kudu. Annually, browse made up 80.2% of the diet, while 7.6% mast, 6.5% grasses, 3% forbs and 2.7% unidentified material comprised the remaining parts of their diet. Important browse species included Texas/blackjack oak Quercus buckleyi/Q. marilandica, plateau live oak Q. fusiformis, Ashe juniper Juniperus ashei, mesquite Prosopis glandulosa, prickly pear Opuntia sp., flameleaf sumac Rhus lanceolata, and Texas persimmon Diospyros texana. We measured availability of forage plants by quadrat and line intercept methods concurrent with faecal pellet collection. We compared plant use (dietary composition) with plant availability and assessed forage preference by greater kudu using log-likelihood χ²-tests with Bonferroni corrected confidence intervals and Manly's alpha indices. We detected statistically significant differences between plant use and availability (P < 0.05). Purple horsemint Monarda citriodora, Canada wildrye Elymus canadensis, mesquite, flameleaf sumac, Texas/blackjack oak and Ashe juniper were preferred species. Relative preference of general forage categories by greater kudu in Texas was similar to that reported from Africa. Based on our findings, greater kudu could compete with white-tailed deer for browse forage.

A combination of heavy metals, organochlorines (OC) and fatty acids (FA) that reflect long-term deposition (1 year) in tissues was used in a Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA) exploring population substructure in 104 minke whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata that were sampled in West Greenland, the Central and Northeast Atlantic Sea and in the North Sea in 1998. Using a CDA that included mercury and cadmium in muscle, liver and kidney, and eight OCs and four unsaturated FAs in blubber we were able to separate the whales into four subpopulations: 1) a West Greenland group, 2) a Central Atlantic group represented by whales from Jan Mayen, 3) a Northeast Atlantic group (Svalbard, Barents Sea and northwestern Norway), and 4) a North Sea group. During an assignment test based on the data transformation developed by the CDA, about 84% of the individuals were correctly assigned to the area where they had been caught. The highest degree of misassignment was between Jan Mayen and the Northeast Atlantic groups. The differences among the four groups likely reflected regional differences (i.e. sea water chemistry, prey type and prey availability) among the marine ecosystems within the range studied. The study indicated that a multi-elemental approach based on long-term deposited compounds with different ecological and physiological pathways can be used for identification of subpopulations of marine mammals.

Although accuracy of wildlife radio-tracking systems have been measured intensively, little attention has been given to error associated with varying transmitter heights that would occur because of species size or life history (e.g. arboreal species). Our objective was to simulate the approximate transmitter height of three extensively studied game species to determine their influence on bearing accuracy. Error rates were 4-fold greater at simulated transmission heights of northern bobwhites Colinus virginianus (15 cm; –x = 24.37) and wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo (46 cm; –x = 24.46) than at transmission heights of white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus (92 cm; –x = 6.43). Results suggest that error differences associated with transmitter height can have a dramatic influence on measures of habitat selection. We discuss the implications of variation in transmitter height on study design and its potential influence on estimated rates of error.

An earlier study in western France showed that birds shot around protected areas had a lower body mass than birds remaining in nature reserves, but it was impossible at that time to distinguish whether shot birds were leaner because they were exhausted and ignorant migrants, or whether there was simply a body-condition bias making the leaner individuals of the area more likely to be shot. To test these hypotheses, we used body mass at ringing from close to 5,000 teal Anas crecca in the Camargue, southern France. Distinguishing between ‘resident’ birds recaptured alive in the same protected area at least once during the month following ringing, ‘locally shot birds’ hunted in the Camargue and ‘migrants’ hunted out of the Camargue area during the same period, we could not detect any significant difference between the average body mass of ‘residents’ and ‘migrants’, whereas locally shot birds were generally lighter. This suggests that migration is not the reason why hunters generally shoot lean ducks around nature reserves. Conversely, these results support the idea that some mechanisms, maybe linked to competition and dominance relationships between birds in protected areas, make the leaner teal more likely to get killed by hunters. Whatever the mechanism involved, this pattern suggests that carrying capacity was reached in the protected areas, a situation calling for appropriate habitat management.

All European bison Bison bonasus saved from extinction about 80 years ago originated from just 12 founders. Now, the population totals about 3,000 very closely related individuals. Almost 40% live in small groups in captivity, and the rest live in a few, isolated, free-ranging and semi-free herds. Although some negative influences of inbreeding have been reported, further loss of genetic variability can be prevented by allowing exchange of genes among sufficiently large numbers of animals. The Carpathian Range, the largest and least altered mountain range in Central Europe, offers the best ecological conditions to establish a viable metapopulation of European bison. In this paper, we describe recent advances in reestablishing free-ranging bison in the Carpathians, the programme's benefits for the future of the species, and its implications for the restoration of a missing ecological role in the ecoregion.