The ability to detect reptiles and amphibians is influenced by environmental and behavioural variables and detection probabilities, but studies to determine herpetofauna species richness often employ only a small number of sampling techniques, primarily drift fence arrays, visual encounter surveys, and coverboards (i.e. primary techniques). However, using only two or three sampling techniques can underestimate species richness. To evaluate the efficacy of sampling methodologies in determining the species richness of herpetofauna, we employed 11 different sampling techniques. We hypothesized that adding standardized road searches, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) piping grids, line transects, auditory surveys (i.e. secondary techniques), opportunistic encounters, aquatic funnel traps, crayfish traps and basking traps (i.e. tertiary techniques) would better portray species richness. Observed species richness (S_abs, species physically detected or observed), Chao2 estimates of species richness (S), unique species captured (i.e. species detected by only one technique), cost, and cost-per-species-captured for individual techniques and categories (i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary) were used to determine efficacy. Primary capture methodologies detected 13 species (S = 14). Secondary and tertiary sampling techniques captured 18 and 24 species, respectively (S = 29 and 25). All sampling methodologies combined captured 33 species for a Chao2 estimate of 34. More unique species were captured by tertiary techniques than by primary or secondary methodologies. Costs for primary techniques were much higher than for secondary and tertiary methodologies. To better determine species richness, we recommend that future research incorporate multiple sampling methodologies in addition to more common techniques.

Methods of estimating bird numbers differ with regard to the results obtained and time required. A usual method of counting grey partridge Perdix perdix consists in counting calling males in the period with their highest vocal activity. This method was tested in our study with the additional use of playback. The number of males calling after playback was significantly higher than before playback. We found a positive relationship between the increase in the number of males calling after playback and their maximum numbers at the study site. However, after playback, the mean number of recorded males was significantly smaller in sites with the presence of red fox Vulpes vulpes burrows than in locations where this predator was absent. Without playback, there was no difference in the number of males between these two types of sites. The results of this study show that the use of playback improves the ability to detect grey partridges (as was similarly found with many other species). The use of playback in estimating the numbers of grey partridge may also allow further analyses, on e.g. site selectivity.

We compared the consumption of rodent prey by barn owl Tyto alba and short-eared owl Asio flammeus during winter in agricultural areas in southern Chile. Diets were studied on the basis of pellets collected during the winters of 1986, 1987 and 1996. Both owl species consumed a large number of different rodent prey (8–9 species), but they preyed more often on the olivaceus field mouse Abrothrix olivaceus (56% and 52% of all individual prey, respectively) and long-tailed pygmy rice rat Oligoryzomys longicandatus (12.6% and 18.6%, respectively). The diet of the two owl species largely overlapped (95%). The diet diversity of barn owls and short-eared owls was not statistically different and accordingly they showed a similar evenness in diet. The geometric mean weight of rodent prey (GMWP) for short-eared owls (33 ± 1.36 g) was significantly greater than that of barn owls (28.3 ± 1.81 g). No significant difference was found between the proportion of native and introduced rodent prey consumed by barn and short-eared owls. The high diet similarity between both owl species could be a result of convergencies in hunting modes and activity time, similar body mass, or homogeneous rodent prey distribution and abundance in the agricultural areas we studied. The higher GMWP for the short-eared owl was probably caused by the fact that it preyed on the largest rodent prey in our study sites, the Norwegian rat Rattus norvegicus. According to our rodent trapping in the field, barn and short-eared owls appear to be opportunistic rather than selective predators in agricultural areas in southern Chile.

François' langur Trachypithecus francoisi is a threatened monkey species whose populations have been declining rapidly during the last four decades, and at the same time, there has been a severe fragmentation of the species' habitat. Using focal animal sampling and continuous recording, we studied food selection of a group of François' langur in a small fragmented habitat in the county of Fusui, Guangxi Province, China. We also analysed the vegetation data obtained within their home range using quadrat sampling. The langurs consumed a higher proportion of leaves but from a smaller number of plant species than their conspecifics in continuous habitats. They selectively utilised specific species as food sources, and they spent 61.6% of their feeding time on four staple species, whilst only 38.4% of their feeding time was spent on the 36 plant species that were either seasonally or rarely consumed food items. Although our sample sizes were small and from a single group, our results suggest that, similar to other colobine species, François' langurs in a fragmented habitat are highly selective feeders. Although the langurs appeared reasonably tolerant and well adapted to cope with habitat fragmentation in the short-term, they are still to be considered as highly vulnerable as their survival depends on a small number of food plants, which themselves could be threatened by other factors.

In many regions of the Iberian Peninsula, wild ungulates have disappeared and wolves Canis lupus often depend on garbage dumps and domestic animals. This paper represents an example of wild ungulate preferences of the Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus in an environment with no human-wildlife conflicts, because wolves rarely predate on livestock. I studied the patterns of prey selection by the Iberian wolf during May 1998-October 2002 in northwestern Spain, in an area which supports a diverse community of wild ungulates and in which also domestic ungulates are present. My analysis of 593 wolf scats showed that wild ungulates were consumed preferentially over other prey (i.e. domestic ungulates, carnivores and lagomorphs). Roe deer Capreolus capreolus was the most important prey species followed by red deer Cervus elaphus and wild boar Sus scrofa. Domestic ungulates were poorly represented in the wolf diet. Predation frequencies of domestic and wild ungulates varied seasonally and between years. The consumption of roe deer and wild boar increased during the birthing season, probably because of the higher vulnerability of newly born animals; wolves predate mainly on juvenile roe deer and wild boar.

Relocation has been used as a management tool for nuisance black bears Ursus americanus for decades. Using tag recovery data from relocated nuisance bears in Ontario, Canada, we developed predictive models to assist managers in determining the efficacy of black bear relocation based on the sex and age of the animal, and a range of relocation distances. We considered relocation success in terms of nuisance recurrence rates and whether bears returned to within 20 km of the capture site. A minimum of 30% of relocated bears were subsequently involved in another nuisance event and adult females were the segment of the population most likely to re-offend (48%). Adult bears consistently exhibited higher return rates than juveniles (73 vs 29%), hence we modeled these two groups separately. Based on logistic regression models, the probability of return for animals 1–3 years of age increased with age, females were more likely to return than males, and return rates decreased with increasing relocation distance. For bears ≥4 years of age, these variables were poor predictors of return; the model had difficulty identifying bears that did not return. We used receiver-operating characteristic curves to estimate relocation distance thresholds for juvenile bears. The results suggest that 2- and 3-year-old male bears will not return to within 20 km of the capture area if relocated a minimum of 30 km and 64 km, respectively. Although relocation appears to be an effective strategy for the management of juvenile male bears, success rates were low for adults. Our findings can aid resource managers in making more informed decisions as to the potential effectiveness of relocation as a management tool.

Contradictory attitudes towards lynx Lynx lynx management in Finland have emerged as a consequence of rapid growth of the lynx population together with the strict protection and conservation objectives determined by the European Union. In this study, conducted during 2004–2005, we examined local people's and stakeholders' opinions about lynx management through a nationwide survey. We also assessed local people's opinions through comments expressed at public meetings, which were recorded, transcribed and analysed. In general, lynx were seen as an important part of Finnish nature and its biodiversity, but it was also seen as a detriment to sustaining game populations. Hunters who manage roe deer Capreolus capreolus or white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus or hare Lepus spp. populations were especially negative. Hunting and improved public awareness were considered the most effective methods to increase people's tolerance towards lynx and the damage they might cause. Stakeholders were interested in development of the existing damage compensation system and clear rules concerning management of problem individuals. In contrast to hunters, conservationists emphasised the conservation status of lynx and rejected the idea of population regulation through hunting. Many aspects of management were accepted by all stakeholders; other aspects were more controversial. To resolve the conflict between stakeholders regarding lynx management, compromise and cooperation will be required from stakeholders holding conflicting views. This may aid lynx management and also the conservation of the species in Finland in the future.

The Mesola red deer Cervus elaphus in the Po delta are the only native red deer population on the Italian mainland and have been the focus of conservationists and wildlife biologists for some time. In our study, we present a genetic analysis of 25 Mesola red deer on the basis of 20 polymorphic microsatellite loci, aiming at estimating the population's genetic diversity and at providing information for a future genetic screening. In addition, we carried out a population viability analysis (PVA) with demographic and life-history data available from a long-term population survey, simulating different management scenarios. Genetic diversity was very low compared to the rest of Europe (observed and expected heterozygosity 0.50 and 0.61, respectively), and an overall excess of homozygosity was indicative of inbreeding. Calculations of the probability of identity and genotype mismatch frequencies suggested that between five and seven highly informative loci were sufficient to resolve individuals with reasonable certainty. The PVA yielded a generally poor outlook, but at the same time, it showed that management measures already taken significantly increased population viability. A sensitivity analysis revealed that inbreeding depression and possible catastrophes had a huge impact on the population's prospects. However, the establishment of two subpopulations and successful attempts at reducing the consequences of catastrophic events were able to significantly mitigate the harmful effects of both inbreeding and environmental stochasticity. These results, in particular the splitting of the population, may be of general interest to conservationists dealing with unique threatened populations.

Bark stripping by large herbivores is widespread, yet poorly understood. Our study was carried out in a 2000-ha area situated in the Vosges Mountains, France, where beech Fagus sylvatica bark is heavily bark stripped by red deer Cervus elaphus. We tested whether the seasonal variation in the frequency of beech bark stripping by red deer was correlated with bark nutritive value or bark mechanical properties (using an index of bark detachability). We also evaluated whether red deer selected beech trees based on the chemical composition of their bark (e.g. carbohydrates and minerals). Bark-stripped trees had slightly higher carbohydrate contents than non-stripped trees, but this difference resulted from a physiological reaction of the tree to bark stripping. Bark composition was similar between stripped and non-stripped trees spring and summer, but was easier to detach during these periods than during autumn and winter. Therefore, beech bark stripping by red deer in the Vosges Mountains does not appear to be driven by nutritional needs, but it may help deer in improving digestion efficiency.

The Mediterranean landscape of Serra de Grândola, Portugal, is one of many habitats inhabited by Eurasian badgers Meles meles, and in this area, the onset of food availability is seasonally predictable, but abundance is often temporally unpredictable and ephemeral. In our study, we investigated the responses of badgers to the temporal pattern of resource availability. We predicted that they would respond both to the seasonal timing of resource availability and to occasional pulses when food items are superabundant. We hypothesised that badgers' diet would reflect the seasonal onset of specific food resources, closely tracking food abundance, and that this tracking would reflect a relationship between the energetic value and water content of each resource and badger requirements at the time. To evaluate our predictions, we assessed the availability of the primary foods of badgers in Serra de Grândola (i.e. insects and fruits) over four years, and we analysed 120 faecal samples over one year to test for any congruence that might suggest tracking. Fruits and insects showed temporal fluctuations in peaks of availability that occurred on an annual basis, suggesting a temporal pulsing dynamic. Comparison of diet results with phenology and availability of food resources showed a high degree of overlap for practically all main items consumed. Moreover, the consumption of Coleoptera, olives Olea europaea and pears Pyrus bourgaeana appeared to be associated, but only partially, with their availability (r_Coleoptera = 0.21, P = 0.50; r_olives = 0.36, P = 0.24; r_pears = 0.20, P = 0.54); whilst acorns Quercus suber were closely tracked (r_acorns = 0.70, P = 0.01). Orthoptera were the only exception, with a negative relation between consumption and availability (r_Othoptera = -0.31, P = 0.32). This tracking by badgers of primary resources with temporally differing peaks of availability and abundance appeared to involve trade-offs with energy and water requirements. Acorns peaked simultaneously with olives which, although not as abundant, had a higher fat content. Other minor fruits (e.g. loquats Eriobotrya japonica and figs Ficus carica) also seemed to be tracked; they were important resources for badgers during summer when air temperatures were high. These results have implications for understanding badger ecology in areas with temporally unpredictable resources.

The distribution and abundance of pumas Puma concolor within mountain ranges of similar size in the Mexican Chihuahuan desert is known to vary. In 2001–2002, we tested 11 variables pertaining to habitat composition, prey abundance and anthropogenic factors to identify which ones might explain the difference in puma abundance between two mountain ranges (El Cuervo and Sierra Rica) of similar size. We found that shrub density (32.2±1.9 (SE) vs 30.0±1.7 shrubs/km²) and diversity (2.1±0.1 vs 1.9 ± 0.1) did not differ between the two ranges. However, El Cuervo had significantly lower density of mule deer Odocoileus hemionus (158.3 ± 62.6/km² vs 703.3± 296.1/km²) and collared peccary Tayassu tajacu (5.0 ± 2.8/km² vs 146.7± 70.1/km²) faecal groups than Sierra Rica. Conversely, anthropogenic factors such as road density (52.4 km/100 km² vs 43.9 km/100km²), town density (25 towns/100 km² vs 6 towns/100 km²) and human density (6 individuals/100 km² vs 0.08 individuals/100 km²), were higher for El Cuervo than for Sierra Rica. We hypothesized that anthropogenic factors were the most important in explaining the difference in abundance of pumas between the two ranges. We propose that the higher number of people and accessibility to El Cuervo results in a high incidence of illegal hunting which suppresses prey and puma populations. We discuss the consequences of our results to the conservation of pumas in the Mexican Chihuahuan desert.

Hunting management of red deer Cervus elaphus populations may tend to increase population densities to maximise annual yield. Some studies have shown that density and low winter temperatures affect red deer populations in central and northern Europe, but these results cannot be extrapolated to red deer populations in the Mediterranean region where the limiting season is summer instead of winter. The two regions are predicted to experience different climate change effects: while rainfall may increase in northern latitudes, heavier droughts are expected in the Mediterranean region. We studied red deer populations of different densities on 19 hunting estates in southern Spain during two years with contrasting precipitation levels. Our aim was to quantify the combined effects of drought and population density on the development of stags, which is the main economic objective of hunting management in these areas. We found that drought affected body and antler size negatively, and that the effects were more severe in populations of high density. On the basis of our results, we recommend reducing the current densities of red deer in southern Spain to maintain the economic and environmental sustainability of hunting exploitation in the context of global climate change.

Red fox Vulpes vulpes predation on roe deer Capreolus capreolus fawns is regarded as a very important factor affecting recruitment of roe deer. Therefore from a hunting management perspective, it is of interest to find efficient ways to reduce predation. Because predator removal during summer is highly controversial and banned by law in Scandinavia, supplemental feeding of red foxes during the short, critical fawning period of roe deer has been proposed as a means to relieve predation on fawns. We performed a two-year study of providing red fox vixens with food, supplied as close to active dens as possible, and monitored recruitment of radio-marked roe deer in the vicinity of these dens at a realistic management scale (i.e. the size of a large hunting area; ∼65 km²). Even though red foxes found and consumed the food supplied, we found no tendency towards increased recruitment of roe deer. We conclude that supplemental feeding of red foxes during the fawning period is not a solution to this management problem, at least not at the chosen management scale and with the current red fox predation levels.