The Neotropical bat genus Vampyrodes (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae: Stenodermatinae) is widely distributed from southern Mexico to southeastern Brazil. Long thought to be monotypic, V. caraccioli Thomas, 1889, was recognized by previous authors as including two subspecies with the nominate form inhabiting South America south and east of the Andes, and another subspecies, V. c. major Allen, 1908, occurring west and north of the Andes. Reexamination of these forms using molecular and morphological methods supports recognition of these lineages as distinct at the species level. We here provide amended descriptions and diagnoses for these taxa. We also report for the first time an example of perikymata (incremental growth lines that appear on the surface of dental enamel as a series of grooves) in Chiroptera. Presence of distinct perikymata is a synapomorphy of the genus Vampyrodes.
INTRODUCTION
The Neotropical bat genus Vampyrodes (figs. 1–2) is a monotypic taxon of frugivorous bats distributed from southern Mexico to southeastern Brazil. Although it has an extensive distribution, members of this genus seem to be rare in lower latitudes (Velazco et al., 2010a). Vampyrodes is distinguished from related taxa in the subfamily Stenodermatinae by the combination of six characteristics: relatively large body size (>25 g; FA = 47–59 mm); presence of bright white facial stripes and a white middorsal stripe extending from the crown of the head to the rump; presence of a fringe of hair on the trailing edge of the uropatagium; presence of three lower molars and two upper molars; and presence of two accessory cusps on the posterior edge of the second upper premolar.
The species presently known as Vampyrodes caraccioli was originally described as a member of the genus Vampyrops. Thomas (1889) described Vampyrops Caracciolœ based on a specimen from Trinidad in which he noted two sets of diagnostic characteristics that distinguished it from other species of Vampyrops: unusually conspicuous facial and dorsal stripes that are brighter and more prominent than those in other species of that genus, and the presence of two upper and lower incisors and two upper and three lower molars. Thomas named this species after Henry Caracciola, who had collected the holotype. Soon after the description of Vampyrops Caracciolœ, Thomas realized that the correct name of the collector was H. Caracciolo, not Caracciola, and because of this error Thomas (1893a) changed the name to Vampyrops Caraccioli. Husson (1954), however, argued that caracciolae was the correct original spelling and that Thomas's (1893a) emendation to caraccioli was unjustified. Goodwin and Greenhall (1961) emended caraccioli to caraccioloi based upon Pittier and Tate's (1932) and Cabrera's (1958) use of that same spelling. However, according to Carter and Dolan (1978) the correct Latin genitive singular case for the name Caracciolo, derived from the Latin nominative Caracciolus, should be Caraccioli. All studies published after Carter and Dolan's (1978) interpretation of the nomenclature have followed those authors in using V. caraccioli for this taxon.
FIGURE 1.
Photograph of an adult male Vampyrodes caraccioli (showing facial and dorsal stripes) captured at a clay lick along the Rio Tiputini, Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, in November 2008. Photograph by Bejat McCracken.
FIGURE 2.
Photograph of an adult male Vampyrodes caraccioli (showing the two genal vibrissae) captured at a clay lick along the Rio Tiputini, Yasuni National Park, Ecuador, in November 2008. Photograph by Bejat McCracken.
Eleven years after describing V. caraccioli, Thomas (1900) named Vampyrodes as a subgenus of Vampyrops Thomas, 1889 (= Platyrrhinus Saussure, 1860). As conceived by Thomas (1900), Vampyrops included four subgenera differentiated by the number of incisors and molars: Vampyrops (including dorsalis Thomas, 1900; infuscus Peters, 1880; lineatus Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, 1810; vittatus Peters, 1859; and zarhinus Allen, 1891), Vampyriscus (for bidens Dobson, 1878), Vampyressa (for pusillus Wagner, 1843), and Vampyrodes (for Caraccioli Thomas, 1889). Miller (1907) later elevated Vampyodes to the genus level, justifying this decision on the absence of M3 and the considerable reduction of the metacone in M2.
One year later, Allen (1908) described Vampyrodes major from a specimen from Panama, highlighting the larger size of V. major with respect to V. caraccioli. Subsequently, Thomas (1924) described Vampyrodes ornatus from five specimens collected in Peru by Latham Rutter, but he did not acknowledge the existence of any other species or specimens of Vampyrodes other than V. caraccioli from Trinidad (Thomas, 1889, 1893b), restricting the description of V. ornatus to a comparison only with V. caraccioli.
After the description of the three nominal taxa of Vampyrodes, several classification arrangements have been proposed. Cabrera (1958) recognized two species-V. caraccioli and V. major—with V. caraccioli including two subspecies, V. c. caraccioli and V. c. ornatus. Starrett and Casebeer (1968) recognized two species—V. caraccioli and V. major—with ornatus regarded as a junior synonym of major. In the most recent classification, authors have recognized Vampyrodes as a monotypic genus with two subspecies (V. c. caraccioli and V. c. major), with ornatus regarded as a junior synonym of major (Handley, 1966; Jones and Carter, 1976; Koopman, 1993, 1994; Simmons, 2005; Gardner, 2008).
In this paper, we explore the systematics of the genus Vampyrodes across its entire geographic range. We analyze molecular, morphometric, and morphological data to clarify the evolutionary history, species limits, and taxonomy of Vampyrodes.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Our approach in this study was first to identify different lineages based on gene sequences, and subsequently to examine voucher specimens to investigate patterns of morphological congruence with the molecular patterns previously detected. The specimens examined and tissues used for this study belong to the following collections:
AMNH
American Museum of Natural History, New York
BMNH
British Museum (Natural History), London, UK
CM
Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
FMNH
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois
ALP
Field numbers of Adriano Lúcio Peracchi, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
IavH-M
Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, Villa de Leyva, Boyacá, Colombia
ICN
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia
MCZ
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
MUSM
Museo de Historia Natural de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
MVZ
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California
MZUSP
Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
TTU (TK)
Museum of Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas
USNM
United States National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
UV
Sección de Zoología, Departamento de Biología, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia
MOLECULAR ANALYSES
To evaluate the relationships among taxa of the genus Vampyrodes, we sequenced the complete cytochrome-b gene (1140 base pairs; eight specimens) and D-loop (412 base pairs; nine individuals) from different localities in Central and South America. We also sequenced one specimen of Platyrrhinus recifinus for both markers to serve as an outgroup. In addition, five sequences of cyt-b and three of D-loop of Vampyrodes, and one sequence each for Chiroderma villosum and Vampyressa melissa, were retrieved from GenBank. The sequences of Chiroderma, Platyrrhinus, and Vampyressa were used as outgroup taxa to root trees (table 1).
DNA isolation and sequencing were performed either in the Pritzker Laboratory for Molecular Systematic and Evolution of the Field Museum of Natural History (USA) or in the Laboratório de Biodiversidade e Evolução Molecular of the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Brazil), depending on the sample. We used different protocols in each lab as described below.
PRITZKER LABORATORY FOR MOLECULAR SYSTEMATIC AND EVOLUTION: Total genomic DNA from tissue samples was isolated from a small (∼0.05 g, wet weight) portion of liver or muscle samples that had been frozen or preserved in lysis buffer or ethanol. DNA was extracted using a Puregene DNA isolation kit (Gentra System, Minneapolis, Minnesota). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing reactions were carried out with primers L14724 and H15915 from Irwin et al. (1991) and L0 and E3 from Douzery and Randy (1997) and Huchon et al. (1999). PCR conditions include an initial denaturation step at 95°–94° C for 3–5 min, followed by 35 cycles of PCR. The cycles involved denaturation at 95° C for 30 s, annealing at 50°-52° C for 30–90 s, polymerization at 68°–72° C for 1–2 min, and a final extension at 72° C at 5–8 min. The PCR reagents in a 25 µl sample were 2 µl of FMNH Taq, 2.5 µl 10× reaction buffer, 2.5 µl of 8 mM premixed deoxynucleotide triphosphates, 15 µl of ddH2O, 1 µl per primer (10 µM), and 1 µl genomic DNA. The PCR products were cycle-sequenced using ABI PRISM Big Dye v. 3.1 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). The cycling protocol used involved an initial denaturation step at 96° C for 60 s, followed by 25 cycles of denaturation at 96° C for 10 s, annealing at 50° C for 5 min, and extension at 60° C for 4 min. Cycle-sequencing products were purified through an EtOH-EDTA precipitation protocol and run on an ABI PRISM 3730 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) using the amplification primers. Sequences were edited and compiled using Sequencher™ 4.1.2 software (Gene Codes). Base-calling ambiguities between strands were resolved by choosing the call on the cleanest strand.
TABLE 1.
Species, tissue collection number, and GenBank Accession Numbers for the Vampyrodes and outgroup samples used in this study.
LABORATÓRIO DE BIODIVERSIDADE E EVOLUÇÃO MOLECULAR: DNA extractions were performed using the QIAGEN DNeasy kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, CA, USA). PCR amplifications were carried out in 15 µl reactions containing 40–80 ng of DNA, buffer 1B (Phoneutria: 1.5 mM MgCl2, 10 mM Tris-HCl [pH 8.4], 50 mM KCl, 0.1% Triton X-100), 200 µM dNTPs set (Amersham—Biosciences), 0.5 µM of primers and 1.25 U of Taq DNA polymerase (Phoneutria). The primers were the same used in the Pritzker Laboratory.
PCR conditions included an initial denaturation step at 95°–94° C for 3–5 min, followed by 35 cycles of PCR. The cycles involved denaturation at 95° C for 30 s, annealing at 50°–52° C for 30–90 s, polymerization at 68°–72° C for 1–2 min, and a final extension at 72° C at 5–9 min. PCR products were purified using a solution of 20% polyethylene glycol 8000 in 2.5 M of NaCl using a protocol described by Sambrook et al. (2001).
Sequencing of both strands was carried out in a MegaBACE 1000 (GE Healthcare) automated sequencer using DYEnamic ET Terminator kits (GE Healthcare) and the same primers used in PCR amplifications. Sequences were assembled and checked for quality using a combination of the programs Phred v.0.20425 (Ewing et al., 1998; Ewing and Green, 1998) and Phrap v.0.990319 (Green, 1994), and the assembled chromatograms were verified and edited using Consed 12.0 (Gordon et al., 1998).
All sequences generated in this study have been deposited in GenBank with accession nos. HQ637415–HQ637433 (table 1; appendix).
SEQUENCE ANALYSIS: The sequence data were analyzed using maximum parsimony (MP), maximum likelihood (ML), and Bayesian inference (BI) methods. The MP analyses were conducted using PAUP* 4.0b10 (Swofford, 2003). The branch-and bound search algorithm was used to find the most parsimonious tree(s). Parsimony bootstrap was estimated using the heuristic search method with 1000 replicates.
FIGURE 3.
Diagram of the cranium of an adult Vampyrodes caraccioli showing limits of cranial and dental measurements.
jModelTest version 0.1.1 (Posada, 2008) was used to find the best model for the ML and Bayesian analyses under the Akaike information criterion. The ML analyses were conducted using GARLI 0.96b (Zwickl, 2006) with the following parameters; rate matrix = (2.1162, 10.8217, 2.1162, 1.0000, 23.0589, 1.0000); base frequencies (A = 0.3042, C = 0.2854, G = 0.1317, T = 0.2787); proportion of invariable sites = 0.4650; gamma-distribution shape parameter = 0.5780. Bootstrap support was estimated with 1000 replicates.
Bayesian analyses were conducted using MrBayes version 3.1.2 (Huelsenbeck and Ronquist, 2001) with random starting trees without constraints; four simultaneous Markov chains were run for 10,000,000 generations, with a sampling frequency of 500 steps.
MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES
Based on the results of our molecular analyses, museum specimens (appendix) were segregated and analyzed for congruence with patterns detected based on gene sequences. External and osteological characters examined were based on, but not restricted to, those defined by Velazco (2005) and Wetterer et al. (2000). We examined 267 specimens of adult Vampyrodes (133 males and 134 females; appendix). We used digital calipers to take 1 external and 20 craniodental measurements to the nearest 0.01 mm on each specimen (fig. 3). Descriptive statistics (mean and observed range) were calculated for all samples.
Forearm length (FA): Distance from the elbow (tip of the olecranon process) to the wrist (including the carpals). This measurement is made with the wing at least partially folded.
Greatest length of skull (GLS): Distance from the posteriormost point on the occiput to the anteriormost point on the premaxilla (including the incisors).
Condyloincisive length (CIL): Distance between a line connecting the posteriormost margins of the occipital condyles and the anteriormost point on the upper incisors.
Condylocanine length (CCL): Distance between a line connecting the posteriormost margins of the occipital condyles and a line connecting the anteriormost surface of the upper canines.
Braincase breadth (BB): Greatest breadth of the globular part of the braincase, excluding mastoid and paraoccipital processes.
Zygomatic breadth (ZB): Greatest breadth across the zygomatic arches.
Postorbital breadth (PB): Least breadth at the postorbital constriction.
Palatal width at canines (C–C): Least width across palate between lingual margins of the alveoli of upper canines.
Mastoid breadth (MB): Greatest breadth across the mastoid region.
Palatal length (PL): Distance between the posterior palatal notch and the anteriormost border of the incisive alveoli.
Maxillary toothrow length (MTRL): Distance from the anteriormost surface of the upper canine to the posteriormost surface of the crown of M3.
Molariform toothrow length (MLTRL): Distance from the anteriormost edge of P3 to the posteriormost edge of the crown of M3.
Width at M1 (M1–M1): Greatest width of palate across labial margins of the alveoli of M1s.
Width at M2 (M2–M2): Greatest width of palate across labial margins of the alveoli of M2s.
Palate width (PW): Greatest width across the inner edges of the crown of M2s.
M1 width (M1W): Greatest width of crown of M1.
M2 width (M2W): Greatest width of crown of M2.
Dentary length (DENL): Distance from midpoint of condyle to the anteriormost point of the dentary.
Mandibular toothrow length (MANDL): Distance from the anteriormost surface of the lower canine to the posteriormost surface of m3.
Coronoid height (COH): Perpendicular height from the ventral margin of mandible to the tip of the coronoid process.
Width of m1 (m1 W): Greatest width of crown of m1.
All measurements were log-transformed to achieve normalization for statistical analyses. We evaluated differences between sexes and morphological groups by principal component analysis (PCA) using a correlation matrix. Components with eigenvalues greater than 1 were retained. Principal component (PC) scores were plotted to show relationships between species groups in morphospace. Analyses were performed using SPSS for Windows, version 16.
FIGURE 4.
Combined cyt-b and D-loop maximum likelihood phylogram for both species of Vampyrodes. Support statistics from a parsimony bootstrap analysis, a maximum likelihood bootstrap analysis, and a Bayesian analysis are indicated at each resolved node. For the parsimony and maximum likehood analyses (MP and ML, respectively), white indicates bootstrap frequencies ≤50%, grey indicates bootstrap frequencies between 50% and 75%, and black indicates bootstrap frequencies ≥75%. For the Bayesian analysis (BPP), white indicates posterior probabilities <0.95, whereas black indicates posterior probabilities ≥0.95. For each terminal, an alphanumeric identifier and the country of origin (from table 1). Numbers in parentheses refer to localities mapped in figure 6 and listed in the Gazetteer (appendix).
TABLE 2.
Pairwise uncorrected percentage of cyt-b sequence divergence (
± SE) among Vampyrodes and outgroup
RESULTS
MOLECULAR ANALYSES
The combined dataset (1555 bp) included the 16 specimens of Vampyrodes and the outgroups. Unweighted MP analysis resulted in two most parsimonious trees (CI = 0.79; tree length = 480). The MP, ML, and BI analyses of the combined cyt-fc and D-loop recovered Vampyrodes as a monophyletic group (fig. 4). The three analyses produced similar topologies and each strongly supported placement of Platyrrhinus as the sister group of Vampyrodes. All analyses identified two well-supported and reciprocally monophyletic lineages within Vampyrodes that correspond to V. caraccioli and V. major. The mean pairwise distances between cyt-b sequences of V. caraccioli and V. major were over 4.5% (table 2). In the context of genetic distances separating valid species within the sister genus Platyrrhinus (Velazco and Patterson, 2008; Velazco et al., 2010b), this value adequately corroborates the distinctiveness of these lineages and supports their recognition as distinct at the species level.
MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES
We compared 55 specimens of V. caraccioli and 212 of V. major using a PCA based on the 21 measurements described earlier. Three different PCAs were performed to explore variation within Vampyrodes: (A) an analysis comparing males and females within V. caraccioli to investigate possible sexual dimorphism; (B) an analysis comparing males and females within V. major; and (C) an analysis comparing V. caraccioli with V. major. The three analyses extracted five, four, and three components, respectively, that account for 77.9%, 70.0%, and 74.1% of the variation. PCA plots resulting from analyses (A) and (B) showed that males and females in V. caraccioli and V. major overlap completely (not shown), indicating an absence of sexual dimorphism in both of these species. In the PCA plot from analysis (C), which included all individuals of V. caraccioli and V. major, individuals of V. major fell at the higher end of PC1 (fig. 5A, B). PC1 largely reflects cranial size, and longer and wider skull in V. major (table 3). Along PC2 and PC3, these two species overlap, reflecting shape similarities between the two species (fig. 5A, B).
The results of the comparative morphological analyses in which we examined V. caraccioli and V. major for discretely varying traits in craniodental morphology, pelage, and facial features are included in the diagnoses below.
FIGURE 5.
Principal components analysis (performed on cranial, dental and one external variables) showing dispersion of scores representing Vampyrodes caraccioli (circles) and V. major (triangles) along: (A) first and second axes (B) first and third axes. PC1 represents a size axis (with larger specimens appearing toward the right side of the plot) and PC2 portrays a difference in shape.
TABLE 3.
Factor loadings for the first three factors extracted from the correlation matrix from a principal component (PC) analysis of 21 variables comparing Vampyrodes caraccioli and Vampyrodes major
SYSTEMATICS
FAMILY PHYLLOSTOMIDAE GRAY, 1825
SUBFAMILY STENODERMATINAE GERVAIS, 1856
Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900
Vampyrops: Thomas, 1889: 167; part; not Vampyrops Peters, 1865.
Vampyrodes Thomas, 1900: 270; type species Vampyrops caraccioli Thomas, 1889, by original designation; described as a subgenus of Vampyrops Peters.
DISTRIBUTION: Vampyrodes is known from southern Mexico southward to Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Trinidad and Tobago, northern, eastern, and western Brazil, Ecuador, eastern Peru, and northern Bolivia (fig. 6).
EMENDED DIAGNOSIS: Vampyrodes is a genus of medium to large-sized fruit-eating bats (FA 47.3–58.6 mm, GLS 25.1–29.1 mm, CCL 22.0–25.7 mm; tables 4–5). Dorsal fur pale brown to dark brown, with individual hairs bicolored with pale base and darker tip; ventral fur slightly grayer than dorsal fur, with individual hairs tricolored, with a basal pale brownish band that makes up some 70% to 80% of the total length of each hair, a short dark brown (∼ 10% of the total length of each hair) subterminal band, and a tiny pale brownish terminal band; dorsal stripe brilliant white and wide; conspicuous facials stripes, supraorbital facial stripes extend from the lateral margin of the noseleaf to the top of the head between the ears, malar stripes extend from the corner of the mouth to the base of the ears; folds in the pinnae are not well marked but are distinguishable; enamel surface of the upper and lower dentition with perikymata (fig. 7, top); sulcus mesial to P4 absent; lingual cingulae absent at the bases of the metacones of M1 and M2; M3 absent; p4 lingual accessory cuspule present; lingual cingulid absent on m1; stylid cusp mesial of the protoconid of m1 absent.
Vampyrodes is easily distinguished from Chiroderma by the presence of nasal bones (absent in Chiroderma) and mesiodistally broad and buccolingually compressed upper incisors (slender and pointed in Chiroderma); from Platyrrhinus and Uroderma by the absence of M3 (present in Platyrrhinus and Uroderma); and from Vampyressa and Vampyriscus by its greater skull length (shorter in Vampyressa and Vampyriscus: GLS < 24 mm).
REMARKS: Perikymata or “waves around the tooth” seen on some mammalian teeth are transverse lines on the enamel that are external manifestations of incremental lines of Retzius (Moss-Salentijn et al., 1997). Perikymata present in Vampyrodes can be directly observed with the aid of a dissecting scope as long they have not been completely eroded by tooth wear. Poorly developed perikymata can be observed in species of Artibeus (A. jamaicensis: AMNH 177758; A. lituratus: AMNH 260239) and Dermanura (D. anderseni: AMNH 210822; D. cinerea: AMNH 29689; D. glauca: AMNH 24393). Perikymata have been reported in Artiodactyla (Kierdorf et al., 2000), Carnivora (present in Hyaenidae [Ferretti, 2007] but absent in Canis and Felis [Skobe et al., 1985]), †Notoungulata (Gelfo et al., 2008), Perissodactyla (Hillson, 2005; von Koenigswald et al., 2011), most Primates (including fossil and recent Hominidae; Beynon and Wood, 1987; Maas and Dumont, 1999; Guatelli-Steinberg et al., 2004), Proboscidea (Ferretti, 2008), and some Rodentia (Flynn and Morgan, 2005). This is the first record of perikymata in Chiroptera to our knowledge (Lester and Hand, 1987; Lester et al., 1988).
FIGURE 6.
Map showing collecting localities of Vampyrodes caraccioli (circles) and V. major (squares). Numbers refer to entries in the Gazetteer (appendix).
TABLE 4.
Measurements (mm) and sample statisticsa of Vampyrodes caraccioli
Vampyrodes caraccioli
(Thomas, 1889)
Caracciolo's Stripe-faced Bat
Figures 1, 2, 8, 9, and 10
Vampyrops Caracciolœ Thomas, 1889: 167; type locality “Trinidad.”
Vampyrops Caraccioli Thomas, 1893a: 186; corrected original spelling.
V[ampyrops. (Vampyrodes)] Caraccioli: Thomas, 1900: 270; name combination.
Vampyrodes caracciolœ: Miller, 1907: 156; first use of current name combination and incorrect subsequent spelling of Vampyrops caraccioloi Thomas.
Vampyrodes ornatus Thomas, 1924: 532; type locality “San Lorenzo, Rio Marañon, nearly opposite mouth of Huallaga. Alt. 500',” Loreto, Peru.
V[ampyrodes]. caraccioloi Pittier and Tate, 1932: 273; incorrect subsequent spelling of Vampyrodes caraccioli Thomas.
Vampyrodes caraccioloi Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961: 257; unjustified emendation of Vampyrops caraccioli Thomas.
Vampyrodes ornata Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961: 257; incorrect subsequent spelling of Vampyrodes ornatus Thomas.
TYPE MATERIAL: The holotype of V. caraccioli is BMNH 89.6.10.2, a subadult of undetermined sex prepared as a skin and skull. The skin is in good condition, but the skull is damaged. The braincase was removed, a distal section of the parietals are missing, and there is a hole on the right parietal. The occipital bone is mostly missing, although the proximal section of the basioccipital is present; the left squamosal and zygomatic arch are missing. The mandibles are intact but were separated at some point and glued together afterward. V. caraccioli was collected by Henry Caracciolo in Trinidad at an unspecified locality.
DISTRIBUTION: Vampyrodes caraccioli is known from eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, Peru, northern Bolivia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Brazil (fig. 6).
EMENDED DIAGNOSIS: Dorsal fur pale brown to dark brown, 7–9 mm long; two genal vibrissae present; uropatagium with inverted U-shaped posterior margin fringed with short (< 2 mm) dense hair along its free edge; metacarpal III longer than metacarpal V; rostrum slender; well-developed anterior notch present in nasals; parietal foramina well separated from nuchal crest; weakly developed groove present between occipital condyle and paracondylar process; paraoccipital processes well developed; perikymata present on all upper and lower teeth; Il broad and bilobed but appears single lobed in older individuals with worn teeth; M1 postentoconule absent or poorly developed; M2 parastyle absent or poorly developed; M2 postentoconule absent or weakly developed; lower incisors robust and bilobed; lingual accessory cuspule present on p4; cuspule on m1 and m2 paracristid absent.
DESCRIPTION AND COMPARISONS: A medium-sized Vampyrodes (FA 47.28–55.98 mm; GLS 25.14–27.97 mm; CCL 21.98–24.98 mm; table 4). All linear measurements of V. caraccioli show a slight overlap with those of V. major, with V. caraccioli being the smaller of the two species (tables 4–5). Dorsal pelage in V. caraccioli is long (7–9 mm) and brown, with individual hairs bicolored with darker tips. Compared with V. major, the pelage tends to be slightly lighter and the hairs shorter (9–10 mm in V. major). The ventral pelage is similar but slightly darker, with individual hairs tricolored, with a basal pale brownish band that makes up some 70% to 80% of the total length of each hair. Each hair also has a short dark brown (∼ 10% of the total length of each hair) subterminal band, and a tiny pale brownish terminal band. The uropatagium in V. caraccioli has an inverted U-shaped posterior margin with dense and short hair (< 2 mm) along the trailing edge (V-shaped posterior margin in V. major with dense and long hair (> 2 mm) along the trailing edge). The width of uropatagium in V. caraccioli is 5–9 mm at midline (6–10 mm in V. major). The proximal half of forearm is covered with dense, short hair. Metacarpal III is longer than metacarpal V in V. caraccioli (the metacarpal III is shorter than metacarpal V in V. major). The plagiopatagium inserts onto the tarsal bones. Two genal vibrissae are present in V. caraccioli (three genal vibrissae are present in V. major). V. caraccioli has six vibrissae surrounding the margin of the noseleaf in a single array; two vibrissae on each side of upper lip below the vibrissae surrounding the noseleaf; four submental vibrissae on each side of chin; and two interramal vibrissae. The noseleaf is longer than it is wide and the inferior border of the nasal horseshoe is completely free of upper lip.
The skull of V. caraccioli has a slender rostrum (broad and robust in V. major) and a well-developed anterior notch in the nasals (absent or weakly developed in V. major). Two infraorbital foramina usually present (three infraorbital foramina are present on one specimen examined: USNM 405129). The parietal foramina are well separated from the nuchal crest in V. caraccioli (USNM 405129; figs. 8A, 10A) whereas in V. major (FMNH 127114; figs. 8C, 10B) these foramina are closer to the nuchal crest. The groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is weakly developed (USNM 405129; FMNH 139776; fig. 10A). Compared with V. major, the groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is well developed (FMNH 58263; fig. 10B). The paraoccipital processes are well developed (moderately developed in V. major).
Perikymata are present on all upper and lower teeth (fig. 7, top). The upper inner incisors are broad; both the outer and inner incisors are bilobate (USNM 361711), but may appear single lobed in older individuals with worn teeth (USNM 528341). By comparison, in V. major the upper inner incisors are slender. P3 is more than half the size of P4 in V. caraccioli, and two stylar cuspules are present on posterior cristid of P4. The M1 lacks a parastyle but both a mesostyle and metastyle are present, and a stylar cuspule is present on the labial cingulum of the metacone. A sulcus is present on the posterior cristid of the M1 paracone, the protocone is well developed, and a postentoconule is absent or poorly developed on M1. On M2 the parastyle is absent or poorly developed (FMNH 139776) (well developed in V. major), the labial cingulum on the paracone is absent or poorly developed, and the postentoconule is absent or poorly developed (well developed in V. major). The lower incisors are robust and bilobed (small in V. major). A p4 lingual accessory cuspule is present. A cuspule on the m1 paracristid is absent in V. caraccioli (present in V. major). A cuspule on the m2 paracristid is always absent in V. caraccioli. In V. major, this cuspule is sometimes present (AMNH 186381) and sometimes absent (USNM 314717).
NATURAL HISTORY: Vampyrodes caraccioli is a frugivorous bat that has been reported to feed on at least six plant species representing three genera in two families: Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae) and Ficus insipida, F. obtusifolia, F. yoponensis, F. sp, and Poulsenia armata (Moraceae) (Foster et al., 1986; Kalko and Handley, 2001; Lobova et al., 2009). Lobova et al. (2009) reported an epizoochorous dispersal by V. caraccioli of Cyathula prostrata (Amaranthaceae), a terrestrial herb with diaspores that adhere to the fur of its dispersal agents.
Very few reports of roosts of Vampyrodes caraccioli have been published. Day roosts include foliage, branches, and palm fronds where groups of two to four have been recorded (Husson, 1954; Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961).
Two species of ectoparasite (Periglischrus iheringi: Spinturnicidae; Speleochir brasiliensis: Ereynetidae) have been reported from V. caraccioli from a Brazilian specimen (Confalonieri, 1976; Fain and Aitken, 1969) and one from a Venezuelan specimen (Paratrichobius sp., salvini complex: Streblidae) (Wenzel, 1976). Nogueira et al. (2004) reported that 66% of V. caraccioli captured in western Amazonia of Brazil were infested with trematode Hasstilesia tricolor in their small intestines.
Like other stenodermatines, Vampyrodes caraccioli has a litter size of one (Tuttle, 1970; Graham, 1987). Reproductive data suggest possible seasonal polyestry; pregnant females have been captured in July, September, October, November, December, and January (Tuttle, 1970; Davis and Dixon, 1976; Graham, 1987; Moya and Arteaga, 2007). Lactating females have been captured in October (Moya and Arteaga, 2007).
KARYOLOGY: Vampyrodes caraccioli has a diploid chromosome number (2n) of 30 and a fundamental number (FN) of 56. The X chromosome is subtelocentric and the Y chromosome is submetacentric (Baker and Hsu, 1970; Baker, 1973).
REMARKS: The holotype of Vampyrodes ornatus BMNH 24.3.1.63, is an adult female with a hole on the right parietal, missing the right tympanic bula and both m3. Measurements of this holotype are shown in table 4. Forman and Genoways (1979) reported that the head morphology of the sperm of V. caraccioli is unique in being long and having an unusually narrow apex and base.
FIGURE 7.
Labial view of the left P3–M1 illustrating presence and absence of perikymata. Top, Vampyrodes caraccioli (AMNH 230653) with distinct perikymata (arrow). Bottom, Platyrrhinus lineatus (AMNH 23771) without distinct perikyma.
TABLE 5.
Measurements (mm) and sample statisticsa of Vampyrodes major
FIGURE 8.
Dorsal (A) and ventral (B) views of the skull of Vampyrodes caraccioli (USNM 405129; male) from Amazonas, Venezuela; the stylohyals were reconstructed from USNM 582872, a female from Cuzco, Peru. Dorsal (C) and ventral (D) views of the skull of V. major (FMNH 127114; male) from Veracruz, Mexico.
Vampyrodes major Allen, 1908
Great Stripe-faced Bat
Figures 8–10
Vampyrodes major Allen, 1908: 38; type locality “San Pablo, Isthmus of Panama,” Canal Zone, Panama.
TYPE MATERIAL: The holotype MCZ 6756, an adult female, preserved in alcohol with the skull removed and cleaned, was collected by Allen Lesley at San Pablo, Isthmus of Panama, Canal Zone, Panama. The body and skull are in good condition. The type locality is now covered by the waters of Gatún Lake (Goldman, 1920).
DISTRIBUTION: Vampyrodes major is known from southern Mexico (Chiapas and Oaxaca), Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, western Colombia and Ecuador (fig. 6). V. major is expected to occur in El Salvador, but has not been reported yet (Burt and Stirton, 1961; Owen et al., 1991).
EMENDED DIAGNOSIS: Dorsal fur is dark brown, 9–10 mm long; three genal vibrissae present; inverted V-shaped posterior margin of the uropatagium; uropatagium fringed with long (> 2 mm), dense hair along trailing edge; metacarpal III shorter than metacarpal V; rostrum broad and robust; parietal foramina close to nuchal crest; absent or weakly developed anterior notch in the nasals; well-developed groove present between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process; paraoccipital processes moderately developed; perikymata present on all upper and lower teeth; I1 slender and bilobed but appears single lobed in older individuals with worn teeth; M1 postentoconule absent or poorly developed; M2 parastyle well developed; M2 postentoconule well developed; lower incisors small and bilobed; lingual accessory cuspule present on p4; cuspule on m1 paracristid present; cuspule on m2 paracristid sometimes present and sometime absent.
DESCRIPTION AND COMPARISONS: A medium-sized Vampyrodes (FA 51.36–58.64 mm; GLS 26.26–29.06 mm; CCL 23.09–25.71 mm; table 5). All linear measurements of V. major show a small overlap with those of V. caraccioli with V. major being the larger of the two species (tables 4–5). The dorsal pelage in V. major is long (9–10 mm) and brown, with individual hairs bicolored with darker tips. Compared with V. caraccioli, the pelage tends to slightly darker and the hairs longer (7–9 mm in V. caraccioli). The ventral pelage is similar but slighty darker than in the latter species, with individuals hairs tricolored, with a basal pale brownish band that makes up some 70% to 80% of the total length of each hair, a short dark brown (∼ 10% of the total length of each hair) subterminal band, and a tiny pale brownish terminal band. The uropatagium in V. major has an inverted V-shaped posterior margin with dense and long hair (> 2 mm) along the trailing edge (U-shaped posterior margin, with dense and short hair (< 2 mm) along the trailing edge in V. caraccioli). The width of uropatagium in V. major is 6–10 mm long at midline (in V. caraccioli the uropatagium tends to be slightly shorter, 5–9 mm). The proximal half of forearm in V. major is covered with dense, short hair. Metacarpal III is shorter than metacarpal V in V. major (metacarpal III is longer than metacarpal V in V. caraccioli). The plagiopatagium inserts onto the tarsal bones in both species. Three genal vibrissae are present in V. major (two genal vibrissae are present in V. caraccioli). V. major has six vibrissae surrounding the margin of the noseleaf in a single array; two vibrissae on each side of upper lip below the vibrissae surrounding the noseleaf; four submental vibrissae on each side of chin; two interramal vibrissae. The noseleaf is longer than wide and the inferior border of nasal horseshoe is completely free of upper lip.
The skull of V. major has a broad and robust rostrum (slender in V. caraccioli) and the anterior notch in the nasals is absent or weakly developed (well developed in V. caraccioli). Two infraorbital foramina are usually present (multiple infraorbital foramina [> 4] are present on one specimen examined: USNM 309833). The parietal foramina are close to the nuchal crest (FMNH 127114; fig. 10B), whereas they are located much further from the nuchal crest in V. caraccioli (USNM 405129; fig. 10A). The groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is well developed (FMNH 58263; fig. 10B); in comparison, in V. caraccioli the groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is weakly developed (USNM 405129; FMNH 139776; fig. 10A). The paraoccipital processes are moderately developed in V. major (well developed in V. caraccioli).
Perikymata are present in all upper and lower teeth in V. major. The upper inner incisors are slender; both outer and inner incisors are bilobate (FMNH 127114; USNM 539812), but appear single lobed in older individuals with worn teeth (AMNH 186381). Within comparison, in V. caraccioli, the upper inner incisors are mesiodistally broad. P3 is more than half the size of P4, and there are two stylar cuspules present on posterior cristid of P4 in V. major. The M1 parastyle is absent, but both a mesostyle and metastyle are present, and a stylar cuspule is present on the labial cingulum of the M1 metacone. A sulcus is present on the posterior cristid of the M1 paracone, the protocone is well developed, and the postentoconule is absent or poorly developed on M1. On M2 the parastyle is well developed (FMNH 127114) (absent or poorly developed in V. caraccioli), the labial cingulum on the paracone is absent or poorly developed, and the postentoconule is well developed (absent or poorly developed in V. caraccioli). The lower incisors are small and bilobed (robust and bilobed in V. caraccioli). A p4 lingual accessory cuspule is present. A cuspule on the m1 paracristid is present in V. major (absent in V. caraccioli). A cuspule on the m2 paracristid is sometimes present (AMNH 186381) and sometimes absent (USNM 314717) in V. major. In V. caraccioli, this cuspule is always absent.
NATURAL HISTORY: The natural history of Vampyrodes major has been extensively studied (under the name V. caraccioli) Barro Colorado Island, Panama (Bonaccorso, 1979; Giannini and Kalko, 2004). V. major is a frugivorous bat that has been reported to take fruits/infrutescences of 13 species representing five genera in four families: Spondias mombin, Spondias radlkoferi (Anacardiaceae); Calophyllum longifolium (Clusiaceae); Ficus dugandii, F. insipida, F. maxima, F. obtusifolia, F. pertusa, F. trigonata, F. yoponensis, F. sp. and Poulsenia armata (Moraceae), and Piper sp. (Piperaceae) (Bonaccorso, 1979; Morrison, 1980; Handley et al., 1991; Kalko et al., 1996; Medellín and Gaona, 1999; Wendeln et al., 2000; Giannini and Kalko, 2004).
Four species of ectoparasites have been obtained from Panamanian specimens of Vampyrodes major: Chirnyssoides caparti (Sarcoptidae), Parichoronyssus sp. (Macronyssidae), Strebla vespertilionis (Streblidae), and Periglischrus iheringi (Spinturnicidae) (Furman, 1966; Wenzel et al., 1966).
Like Vampyrodes caraccioli, V. major has a litter size of one (Davis et al., 1964; Jones, 1964; Jones et al., 1971). Reproductive data suggested seasonal polyestry; pregnant females have been captured in all months but in December (Davis et al., 1964; Jones, 1964; Jones et al., 1971; Valdez and LaVal, 1971; Fleming et al., 1972; Thomas, 1972; Bonaccorso, 1979; Estrada and Coates-Estrada, 2001). Lactating females have been captured from January to September (Davis et al., 1964; Thomas, 1972; Bonaccorso, 1979).
KARYOLOGY: Vampyrodes major has a similar karyotype of V. caraccioli (2n = 30, FN = 56). The X chromosome is subtelocentric and the Y chromosome is submetacentric (Baker, 1973).
FIGURE 9.
Lateral views of the skulls and lower jaw of (A) Vampyrodes caraccioli (USNM 405129; male); the stylohyal was reconstructed from USNM 582872. Lateral views of the skulls and lower jaw of (B) V. major (FMNH 127114; male).
FIGURE 10.
Posterior views of the occipital region in Vampyrodes caraccioli (A, USNM 405129) and V. major (B, FMNH 127114) illustrating taxonomic differences in the groove between the occipital condyle and the paracondylar process (arrow) and the position of the parietal foramina (pf). In V. caraccioli the groove between the occipital condyle and paracondylar process is weakly developed and the pf are well separated from the nuchal crest. In V. major, however the groove between the occipital condyle and the paracondylar process is well developed and the pf are closer to the nuchal crest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following curators and collection staff graciously provided access to specimens and/or tissues under their care: Eileen Westwig, American Museum of Natural History, New York; Daphne M. Hills and Paula Jenkins, British Museum of Natural History, London; Bruce D. Patterson and John Phelps, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; J. Enrique Castillo, Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, Villa de Leyva, Boyacá; Yaneth Muñoz-Saba, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá; Judith Chupasko, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Víctor Pacheco, Museo de Historia Natural de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima; James L. Patton, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California; Juliana Gualda de Barros and Mario de Vivo, Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de Säo Paulo, Säo Paulo; Robert J. Baker, Museum of Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas; Alfred L. Gardner and Suzanne C. Peurach, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, United States Geological Survey; Oscar Murillo, Sección de Zoología, Departamento de Biología, Universidad del Valle, Cali. We are grateful to Bejat McCracken for allowing us to use her wonderful photographs of live individuals of Vampyrodes caraccioli; Patricia J. Wynne for her amazing illustration of skulls; Caroline C. Aires for her measurements of a Brazilian specimen; Betsy R. Dumont, Norberte P. Giannini, and John H. Wahlert for useful discussions on enamel. We thank Kevin Feldheim, Pritzker Laboratory for Molecular Systematics and Evolution at the Field Museum of Natural History and Letícia P.S. Brina, Rodrigo A.F. Redondo, and Fabrício R. Santos, Laboratório de Biodiversidade e Evolução Molecular at the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais for providing space, technical, and scientific support. Kerry A. Kline, Víctor Martínez-Arias, and an anonymous reviewer read early drafts of this report and made helpful suggestions for its improvement, for which we are grateful. Funding for this project was provided by the Gerstner and Roosevelt postdoctoral fellowships at the AMNH to P.M.V., an Ernst Mayr Travel Grant in Animal Systematics from the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University to P.M.V, and NSF grant DEB 0949859 to N.B.S.
REFERENCES
Appendices
APPENDIX
Specimens Examined
The following list includes all the specimens used in this study, with their respective localities. See Material and Methods for abbreviations. Individuals or series marked with an asterisk were used in the elaboration of tables 3–5 and in the morphometric analyses. Individuals in bold were used in the molecular analyses.
Vampyrodes caraccioli (total 213)
BRAZIL (total 32)
2. Acre, Foot of the Serra da Jaquirana, Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor (7°27′S, 73°41′W), ALP 7089, 7094, 7102.3.
3. Acre, 30 km E of Cruzeiro do Sul, Rio Juruá, Seringal Lagoinha (07°40′S, 72°40′W), DZSJRP 13028.
4. Pará, Belem (1°26′S, 48°28′W), USNM 361711*, 390516, 460122*; Fazenda Velha, Belem, [= Belem; same coordinates], USNM 361712*.
5. Pará, Mocambo, Belem (01°27′S, 48°30′W), USNM 393019-393024*, 460114-460121*, 460123*; Utinga, Belem [= Mocambo, Belem; same coordinates], FMNH 126598–126599).
6. Pará, Área Indígena Kayapó, Ourilândia do Norte (7°41′S, 51°52′W), MZUSP 29149, 34709–34711.
7. Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro (22°54′S, 43°14′W), MN 43101–43102.
8. São Paulo, Núcleo São Sebastião, Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar (23°43′S, 45°45′W), MZUSP 34655.
COLOMBIA (total 7)
9. Meta, Acacias (3°46′N, 73°50′W), USNM 597083–597084
10. Meta, Finca La Reforma, Aguas Claras, Cubarral (3°59′N, 73°45′W), ICN 13820.
11. Putumayo, Caño Caucaya Limoncocha, Puerto Leguizamo (0°12S, 74°46W), IAvH-M 593.
12. Putumayo, Rio Guamues, San Antonio (0°31′N, 76°45′W), FMNH 113948.
13. Vaupes, Mitu (01°08′N, 70°03′W), USNM 445471–445472.
ECUADOR (total 6)
14. Napo, Limoncocha (0°25′S, 76°04′W), USNM 528341-528342*.
15. Pastaza, Arajuno (1°14′S, 77°41′W), USNM 548398*.
16. Pastaza, 130 km S of Coca, Tiguino (1°07′S, 76°57′W), USNM 574536*, 574638.
17. Pastaza, Yosa (coordinates not available), USNM 548227*.
PERU (total 142)
18. Cuzco, Armihuari, Camisea, La Convención (11°51′S, 72°46′W), MUSM 14070–14072; USNM 577953.
19. Cuzco, Konkariari, Camisea, La Convención (11°48′S, 72°52′W), MUSM 14851–14852.
20. Cuzco, Pagoreni, Camisea, La Convención (11°42′S, 72°54′W), MUSM 14073; USNM 582872*.
21. Cuzco, San Martín, Camisea, La Convención (11°47′S, 72°42′W), MUSM 14074–14078; USNM 577954.
22. Cuzco, Pichari, La Convención (12°30′S, 73°48′W), MUSM 21422.
23. Cuzco, 15.9 km SW Pilcopata, Consuelo, Paucartambo (13°08′S, 71°15′W), FMNH 123915–123916, 174914; MUSM 19802.
24. Cuzco, Collpa de San Lorenzo, Quispicanchi (13°24′S, 70°46′W), FMNH 93579.
25. Cuzco, Huajyumbe, Quispicanchi (13°15′S, 70°35′W), FMNH 84414.
26. Huánuco, 9 km N Aucayacu, Huánuco (8°57′S, 76°07′W), TTU 46306.
27. Junín, 2 mi NE of San Ramon, Chanchamayo (11°18′S, 75°20′W), AMNH 230649–230654*.
28. Junín, 3.2 km N of Rio Tulumayo, Vitoc, Chanchamayo (11°12′S, 75°20′W), USNM 507192*.
29. Loreto, Nearly oposite mouth of Huallaga, Rio Marañon, San Lorenzo, Alto Amazonas (4°50′S, 76°40′W), BMNH 24.3.1.63* [Holotype of Vampyrodes ornatus Thomas, 1924].
30. Loreto, 2 km NW of mouth of Río Pastaza, Trueno, Alto Amazonas (2°53′S, 72°24′W), MUSM 16407.
31. Loreto, Base Atun, Rio Samiria, Loreto (3°18′S, 74°37′W), FMNH 122905–122916; and Pithecia Biological Station, Rio Samiria, Loreto (=Base Atun, Rio Samiria, Loreto; same coordinates), FMNH 122903–122904.
32. Loreto, 1 km above Rio Tigrillo, Rio Tigre, Loreto (4°16′S, 74°19′W), FMNH 122917–122918.
33. Loreto, Campamento Catalino, Río Lagartococha, Maynas (coordinates not available), MUSM 21331
34. Loreto, Santa Luisa, Rio Nanay, Maynas (3°20′S, 74°35′ W), FMNH 87044.
35. Loreto, Quebrada Grande, Sucusari, Maynas (3°15′S, 72°55′W), MUSM 21329–21330.
36. Loreto, Río Samiria (coordinates not available), MUSM 3174.
37. Loreto, Tacshacocha, Río Samiria (coordinates not available), MUSM 1016–1017.
38. Madre de Dios, Hacienda Amazonia, Alto Rio Madre de Dios, Manu (12°56′S, 71°15′W), FMNH 125900–125915, 139566–139570, 139760, 139776*, 139777; MUSM 10100–10101, 10103–10108.
39. Madre de Dios, Above Rio Palotoa, Cerro de Pantiacolla, Manu (12°30′S, 71°22′W), FMNH 139785; MUSM 10102.
40. Madre de Dios, Maskoitania, 13.4 km NNW Atalaya, left bank Rio Alto Madre de Dios, Manu (12°46′S, 71°23′W), FMNH 174912–174913, 174915*; MUSM 19801.
41. Madre de Dios, Estacion Biologica Pakitza, Parque Nacional del Manu, Manu (11°56′S, 71°17′W), MUSM 738–739, 5687, 12624–12625; USNM 566545*, 567158.
42. Madre de Dios, Quebrada Aguas Calientes, left bank Rio Alto Madre de Dios, 2.75 km E Shintuya, Manu (12°41′S, 71°15′W), FMNH 170250–170268; MUSM 16762–16771; MVZ 166596, 192683.
43. Madre de Dios, Desembocadura Río Blanco en el Río Tambopata Tambopata (coordinates not available), MUSM 20085.
44. Pasco, Palmira, Pozuzo, Oxapampa (10°03′S, 75°30′W), MUSM 10997–10998.
45. Pasco, Río Negro, Pozuzo, Oxapampa (coordinates not available), MUSM 10996.
46. Pasco, San Pablo, Oxapampa (coordinates not available), AMNH 230655*.
47. Puno, Santuario Nacional Pampas del Heath, Coasa, Carabaya (14°00′S, 69°58′W), MUSM 12867.
48. Puno, SE Río Tavara, Fila Boca Guacamayo, Carabaya (13°30′S, 69°41′W), USNM 579658.
49. Ucayali, Fundo Llanero, Sepahua, Atalaya (coordinates not available), MUSM 12809.
50. Ucayali, Fundo Texas, Sepahua, Atalaya (11°11′S, 72°59′W), MUSM 12810.
51. Ucayali, 59 km SW Pucallpa, Coronel Portillo (8°46′S, 74°9′W), USNM 499100*.
52. Ucayali, Río Ucayali, Pucallpa, Coronel Portillo (8°23′S, 74°32′W), MUSM 152.
53. Ucayali, 65 km NE of Pucallpa, West bank of río Shesha, Coronel Portillo (7°53′S, 74°49′W), MUSM 3168.
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO (total 6)
55. Tobago, Botanic Garden, Government Rest Home, Scarborough, Saint Andrew (11°11′N, 60°44′W), AMNH 175642*.
56. Trinidad, Las Cuevas, Saint George (coordinates not available), AMNH 256324*.
57. Trinidad, Mount Aripo, Saint George (10°43′N, 61°15′W), FMNH 51132*.
58. Trinidad, 4 mi N Arima, Simla Research Center, Saint George (10°41′N, 61°17′W), CM 94707; TTU 44102.
—. Trinidad, no specific locality, BMNH 89.6.10.2* [Holotype of Vampyrops Caraccioloe Thomas, 1901].
VENEZUELA (total 18)
59. Amazonas, Caño Essa, 56 Km NNW Esmeralda, Belen (3°37′N, 65°53′W), USNM 405117–405126*, 405128–405130*.
60. Amazonas, Río Orinoco, Tamatama (3°10′N, 65°49′W), USNM 408569, 545344.
61. Bolivar, Km 74, 59 Km SE El Dorado, El Manaco (6°17′N, 61°19′W), USNM 387186*.
62. Bolivar, 85 Km SSE El Dorado, km. 125 (5°59′N, 61°26′W), USNM 387185*.
63. Miranda, Birongo (10°29′N, 66°16′W), USNM 496565.
Vampyrodes major (total 363)
BELIZE (total 5)
64. Toledo District, Big Falls, N of Rio Grande River (16°15′N, 88°53′W), FMNH 120971.
65. Toledo District, Forestry Camp, Columbia Forest Preserve (16°16′N, 89°01′W), FMNH 58263*; USNM 506502; Columbia Forest Reserve, 2.1 km NNE of Salamanca, Columbia [= Forestry Camp, Columbia Forest Preserve; same coordinates], AMNH 256828*.
66. Toledo District, San Antonio (16°14′N, 89°01′W), FMNH 120970*.
COLOMBIA (total 97)
67. Antioquia, 25 Km S and 22 Km W of Zaragoza, La Tirana (07°18′N, 75°05′W), IAvH-M 927, 969, 971; USNM 499458–499461*.
68. Cauca, Betania, Alto Micay (2°40′N, 77°12′W), FMNH 113381, 113391.
69. Cauca, Quebrada Huanqui, Río Saija (2°52′N, 77°41′W), FMNH 104842.
70. Chocó, 4km abajo de la Italia (4°58′N, 76°13′W), UV 4583.
71. Chocó, Ensenada de Utria, Bahía Solano (4°04′N, 75°12′W), UV 3654–3655.
72. Chocó, Docordó, Itsmina (5°07′N, 76°50′W), ICN 11274.
73. Chocó, Parque Nacional de los Katios, Santata, Riosucio (7°26′N, 77°07′W), IAvH-M 3305, 4345–4347, 4859–4862.
74. Valle del Cauca, Río Zabaletas, across from village of Zabaletas, 29 Km SE Buenaventura (03°44′N, 76°57′W), ICN 6213; USNM 446857*, 446983–447014, 447017, 483657–483663*, 483664–483666, 483667–483684*, 484990*; UV 148, 351, 508, 581, 1186, 2286.
75. Valle del Cauca, El Hormiguero, 20 Km SE of Cali (3°19′N, 76°29′W), USNM 447016.
76. Valle del Cauca, El Mirador Subiendo Agua Sucia (Río Cajambre) margen derecha, Frente a Cerro Caja (3°32′N, 77°18′W), UV 3711.
77. Valle del Cauca, 10 mi NW Vijes, El Tambor (3°46′N, 76° 31′W), USNM 483685*.
78. Valle del Cauca, 2 km S Pance (3°19′N, 76°38′W), USNM 447015.
79. Valle del Cauca, Caimancito, Río Cajambre (coordinates not available), UV 3710.
80. Valle del Cauca, Río Raposo (3°43′N, 77°08′W), USNM 339401.
GUATEMALA (total 5)
82. Izabal, Escobas (15°41′N, 88°38′W), FMNH 41963–41964*, 41965–41966.
83. Petén, 25.6 km E Poptun, Finca La Union, Poptun (16°20′N, 89°25′W), USNM 564897*.
MEXICO (total 5)
84. Oaxaca, Sarabia River, 18 mi N of Matias Romero, Juchitan (17°08′N, 95°02′W), AMNH 186381*.
85. Veracruz, Tuxtla Mountains (18°33′N, 95°12′W), FMNH 127114*.
86. Veracruz, 1.7 km W Cerro Balzapote, Tuxtla Mountains (18°37′N, 95°04′W), FMNH 127112*, 127113.
87. Veracruz, Mirador (coordinates not available), USNM 6327.
NICARAGUA (total 3)
88. Matagalpa, Bijague (12°57′N, 85°26′W), AMNH 29431*.
89. Zelaya, 3 km NW Rama (11°30′N, 83°47′W), TTU 30642–30643.
PANAMA (total 247)
90. Bocas del Toro, Almirante (9°18′N, 82°24′W), USNM 315546–315548*, 315549, 315550–315554*.
91. Bocas del Toro, Río Changena Camp (9°20′N, 82°15′W), USNM 319404, 319405–319412*, 319496*, 519716–519721.
92. Bocas del Toro, Sibube (9°36′N, 82°47′W), USNM 335254–335255*, 335256, 335257*, 519291–519297.
93. Chiriquí, 1 mi E Cuesta de Piedra (8°41′N, 82°38′W), USNM 331677–331681*, 331682.
94. Colón, 4.5 Km NW Frijoles, Bohio Peninsula (9°09′N, 79°50′W), USNM 503624–503627*.
95. Colón, 6 mi N Gamboa (9°07′N, 79°42′W), USNM 520554–520556*.
96. Colón, Isthmus of Panama, San Pablo (9°07′N, 79°47′W), MCZ 6756* [Holotype of Vampyrodes major Allen, 1908].
97. Darién, Rancho Frio, Darien National Park (7°52′N, 77°47′W), FMNH 128137–128140.
98. Darién, Junction rios Jaque and Imamado, Jaque (7°31′N, 78°11′W), USNM 362910*, 362911, 362912–362917*.
99. Darién, Mono Station, Darien National Park (7°44′N, 77°32′W), USNM 565913*.
100. Darién, Near Jaque, Pina Point (7°33′N, 78°12′W), USNM 314716, 314717*.
101. Darién, Río Chucunaque (8°09′N, 77°44′W), USNM 306731*.
102. Darién, Río Seteganti (7°28′N, 77°38′W), USNM 318127*.
103. Darién, Tacarcuna Village Camp (8°05′N, 77°17′W), USNM 309756–309760*, 309761, 309762–309768*, 309769, 309770–309786*, 309787, 309788–309803*, 309804, 309805*, 309806, 309807–309817*, 309818, 309819–309821*, 309822, 309823–309825*, 309826–309827, 309828–309832*, 309833, 309834–309835*, 309836–309837, 309838–309842*, 309843, 309844–309855*, 309856, 309857–309859*, 309860–309862.
104. Panamá, Barro Colorado Island (9°09′N, 79°50′W), AMNH 239254; USNM 304896*, 304897–304901*, 332051*, 457951*, 503836*, 514964–514965*, 514980*, 539811–539812*, 544890*.
105. Panamá, Cerro Azul (9°13′N, 79°18′W), USNM 306729–306730*, 323442–323444*.
106. San Blas, Quebrada Venado, Armila (8°40′N, 77°32′W), USNM 335258–335262*, 335263, 335264–335274*, 519298–519331.
