Classical and molecular cytogenetic methods were applied to study the karyotypes of one species of Hipposideridae and three taxa of the Rhinolophidae subgenus Aquias from Malaysian Borneo. Except for four chromosomal pairs with autapomorphic arm combinations, the karyotype of Coelops robinsoni was found to be similar to the closely related Aselliscus stoliczkanus. From the three Rhinolophus taxa studied, only R. trifoliatus was found to share the karyotype with conspecifics from Peninsular Malaysia. In contrast, the karyotype of R. luctus foetidus from Sarawak, Borneo differed in the composition of the Y-autosomal translocation products from the closely related R. morio from Peninsular Malaysia, formerly also a subspecies of R. luctus. Therefore, elevation to specific rank is suggested for R. l. foetidus. Examination of the chromosomal set of male R. sedulus specimens from Borneo with 2n = 45 and a Neo-X₁X₂Y sex chromosome system revealed extreme differences to the karyotype of specimens from Peninsular Malaysia with 2n = 28, to date also classified as R. sedulus. Therefore, with Sarawak, Borneo, as the type locality for R. sedulus, the taxon from Peninsular Malaysia is here described as a new species.

Nycteris madagascariensis is an enigmatic bat species, described as endemic to Madagascar and known only from two century-old specimens. Vigorous recent efforts to document this species on the island have proven unsuccessful. We extracted DNA from the fluid-preserved paratype of this taxon and used high-throughput sequencing methods to recover cytochrome b sequence data, which was overlaid on an extensive phylogeny of Afrotropical Nycteris. We also analyzed craniodental measurements of both Malagasy and Afrotropical Nycteris using principal components analysis and one-way ANOVAs. Both genetic and morphological analyses unequivocally place N. madagascariensis in a clade otherwise known only from eastern and coastal Kenya. Review of the collector's notes and itinerary raises doubts on the accuracy of its having originated in Madagascar; the hypodigm was probably collected during his travels in coastal East Africa. We therefore place Nycteris madagascariensis G. Grandidier, 1937 in the synonymy of N. macrotis sensu lato and remove this species from the bat fauna of Madagascar.

Extant Malagasy members of the genus Macronycteris are broadly distributed across the island and vary in size with respect to sex, bioclimatic zone, and intraspecific clade affinity. An extinct Quaternary species, M. besaoka, was considered morphologically distinct from modern Macronycteris based on its robust mandibles and wider molars. Since its description, taxonomic and phylogenetic revisions have reshaped our understanding of Malagasy Macronycteris. This included the discovery of the cryptic species M. cryptovalorona and the recognition of two clades within M. commersoni. Recent augmentation of museum cranial collections of Malagasy members of the genus has permitted renewed investigation into morphological trends. Herein, we examine craniodental morphology of modern Malagasy Macronycteris spp., and investigate the validity of M. besaoka through nonparametric multivariate methods. The results of this study support M. besaoka as a valid species. Further, some specimens previously diagnosed as M. besaoka are best associated with modern M. commersoni from the dry bioclimatic zone. These results have implications for the history of the bat community at Anjohibe Cave, as well as the identification of other Macronycteris subfossils from dry western Madagascar.

Myotis planiceps is an insectivorous species with a distinctive flat-headed morphology among Myotis species. Its distribution is restricted to the northeastern Mexico highlands, and uses trees of Yucca carnerosana to roost. The particular ecological and morphological characteristics of this species make it a likely resource-use specialist. We evaluated the morphological specialization of M. planiceps as compared with thirteen American congeners belonging to different dietary categories, using a geometric morphometric protocol and multivariate statistical analyses. We estimated morphological differences across dietary categories, including M. planiceps as a separate group, and evaluated the effect of cranial size and diet on variations in cranial morphology. We found a significant differentiation of this species in all the cranial shape characters, with soft insectivores as the dietary group closest to M. planiceps. Additionally, diet explained similar percentages of shape variance in cranial and mandibular characters, and the highest interaction between diet and cranial size was recorded in the braincase. In general, the smallest sizes and thinner skulls were observed in soft insectivores. Our findings do not support a significant relationship between skull shape characters, described by the first principal component, and hardness of food items, but we found a significant association with the mandible shape. No phylogenetic structure was observed in the residual variance of these models. We found trends of change in cranial morphology associated with specialized habitats, the mandibular characters being more contrasting in the fishing bat M. vivesi, and the braincase morphology being more contrasting in M. planiceps, a species that lives in restricted habitats and probably feeds on soft insects.

Short-tailed fruit bats typically breed twice a year, fitting a seasonal bimodal polyestry pattern in many ecosystems along their distributional range. For two species, Carollia perspicillata and C. benkeithi, reproductive timing was studied on a monthly basis and related to environmental seasonality (climatic factors and fruit resource availability) in a Peruvian premontane forest with a secondary succession plant composition. Sex, age and reproductive condition were assessed through morphological inspection. Plant species, whose fruits were known to be consumed by these bats, were scored for fruit resource availability. For C. perspicillata, lactation followed a bimodal pattern with peaks at the onset (September–October) and the middle of the rainy season (February–March). The proportion of lactating females was positively correlated with rainfall, temperature and fruit resource availability. In contrast, reproductive males, as indicated by descended testes, occurred during the dry season and its proportion was negatively correlated with rainfall. For C. benkeithi, records of reproductive females suggest that births also occur during the rainy season. This study supports the previously suggested synchronization of births with higher fruit resource availability for Carollia species, and contributes with information about the geographic variation of their reproductive phenology.

In this study, reproductive stages and ovarian histophysiology were investigated in adult female Artibeus planirostris in the municipality of Vitória de Santo Antão, Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil. They were captured over one night each month (November 2016 to November 2017). Based on the monthly average precipitation, the dry (September to February) and rainy (March to August) months were grouped. Through external body morphology, females were classified as inactive, pregnant, lactating, and post-lactating. Only the inactive (n = 13) were euthanized for morphophysiological analyzes. Blood samples were obtained for estrogen measurement and, after euthanasia, the ovaries were collected and processed by routine histological techniques. In morphometry, were considered: the area of the ovary, the presence, and the area of the ovarian follicles (unilaminar and multilaminar primary, antral, and Graafian), as well as the quantification of the corpus luteum. In immunohistochemistry, PCNA (Proliferating cell nuclear antigen) was used. The results showed pregnant females only in dry months, however inactive, lactating, and post-lactating females were collected in dry and rainy months. Estrogen levels and the presence of positive PCNA cells were higher in the rainy months. The Graafian follicle occurred only in these months, whereas the corpus luteum was found in all specimens from the dry months. Although A. planirostris has a tendency to start gestation in dry months and mating from mid to the end of the rainy months, this species showed adaptability influenced by environmental variations throughout the reproductive cycle, indicating a aseasonal polyestry.

Mate attraction via chemosignalling is common in group-living mammals. In the greater short-nosed fruit bats, Cynopterus sphinx, it remains unclear whether males use chemosignals to attract females. Here, we use field observations to describe patterns of male chemosignalling in this species, then use preference test in captivity to infer the function of chemosignals. We observed that males engage in chemosignalling through wing fanning after marking their leaf ‘tent' roosts with saliva. The male fanned each wing alternatively and vigorously and performed frequent tongue flicks to the wing membrane. Such behaviour is exhibited towards females that returned to the tent. Afterwards, the male embraced the female with both wings. Wing fanning and tent marking occurred more often during the mating season than the non-mating season. To infer the role of chemosignals in recruiting females, we performed two different choice tests. In the first test, we tested whether females preferred the tent containing cotton balls that were rubbed gently and repeatedly on the ventral side of the plagiopatagium of the male, versus a control tent without any conspecific odour. In the second test, we tested whether females preferred a tent that was marked by a male's saliva versus a control tent without such markings. The result of both tests indicated that females recognized the saliva and ‘scent’ from the wings of males, since females always preferred tents with male chemosignals over the controls. Our findings suggest that the recruitment of females and subsequent formation of a harem in the greater short-nosed fruit bats is influenced by male chemosignals.

Insectivorous bats may significantly contribute to human well-being by suppressing pest insects and possibly preventing the emergence of diseases. To understand the roles these bats play in their ecosystems, a diet analysis of their guano can be carried out. However, each diet analysis method has its drawbacks, e.g., some soft-bodied insects might be missed in microscopic analysis of guano. We aimed to examine the diet of the wrinkle-lipped free-tailed bats (Chaerephon plicatus) using direct PCR and DGGE (denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) technique. Sequencing was done for 240 guano samples collected from two caves in Thailand over the course of a year. Direct PCR and DGGE was successfully applied for bat guano analysis. Seventy-six Operational Taxonomic Units were identified, in which 25 were determined to the species level. Diptera was the most abundant insect order found in bats' diet, with a percentage frequency of occurrence (%FOO) of 32.8%, followed by Hemiptera (27.2%), Lepidoptera (24.1%) and Coleoptera (10.3%). Hemipterans were preferred during active rice-growing months, while dipterans were consumed year-round. Eight known crop pests were found, and the brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) was the most dominant throughout the year. Mosquitoes also substantially contributed to the bat's diet. The bats probably encounter these insects during insect dispersal at high elevations. The prey species recorded strongly indicated that this bat plays a role in facilitating rice and crop productions, which increases food security. In addition, this bat may play a role in suppressing potential disease-carrying insects such as various species of mosquitoes. We urge local and international authorities to increase conservation efforts and that similar studies should be done with other bat species.

While the presence of some phytophagous bats species in Neotropical cities is generally known, detailed information on their feeding habits in urban ecosystems is still limited. In some highly developed urban spaces, native plant species are scarce, therefore phytophagous bats living in those conditions could be relying only on resources offered by introduced vegetation. This study describes the diet of Glossophaga soricina in the campus of Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina in the city of Lima, Peru. To achieve this, from September 2016 to May 2017, bats were captured using mist nets to collect samples of feces and pollen from their body surface. The phytophagous diet of G. soricina comprised resources offered by at least 25 species of cultivated plants, nearly all of them introduced to Lima. Glossophaga soricina mainly fed on the nectar/pollen of Agave angustifolia, Eucalyptus spp., Crescentia cujete and Musa spp., and fruits of Piper aduncum and Morus nigra. Insects were also registered in its diet. It consumed many non-chiropterophilous flowers and most of its principal resources are not abundant in the study area. Results suggest that G. soricina is a generalist nectarivore that has adapted its dietary habits to consume nectar/pollen of a wide variety of flowers and complements its diet with fruits and insects. It is concluded that introduced cultivated vegetation permits the persistence of G. soricina in the city; hence unsuitable green areas management could negatively affect its local populations. More studies on ecology of urban phytophagous bats in Lima and other Neotropical cities are required to conserve their populations in those altered ecosystems.

Several types of information have been used to infer migration in bats, including seasonal presence or absence, marking and reencountering individual bats, and genetically identifiable populations being encountered in different locations in different seasons. Each of these types of evidence has been used to reveal the migratory movements of bats in North America and the Old World, but little is known about bat migration in the Neotropics. 58 species of bats belonging to six families are currently known to occur in Paraguay, including insectivores, frugivores, pollinivores, piscivores, carnivores and sanguivores. Given the seasonality of some of these food resources, the question arises of whether some species are migratory. To date there is no direct evidence of bat migration in Paraguay. We develop a novel method of investigating possible bat migration in Paraguay, generalizable to other countries or regions. Using a database of almost 14,000 bat records in Paraguay that include specific identification, month and department (primary administrative division) of capture, we apply statistical methods to search for seasonal patterns of occurrence in 18 species. Although we are able to assign locality records to ecoregions only by reference to the department of capture, the analytic method proved useful in detecting patterns of seasonal variation. Results strongly suggest migration of bats both within Paraguay and outside of the country, by ten species representing four families and three trophic guilds. Migratory status is not related to ecoregional preference, trophic guild, distributional status or body size. Migration has previously been reported elsewhere for six of the ten species (Nyctinomops laticaudatus, Lasiurus ega, Glossophaga soricina, Artibeus lituratus, Pygoderma bilabiatum and Sturnira lilium). This is the first report of migration in Eumops patagonicus, Molossops temminckii, Myotis albescens and Noctilio albiventris. As for any migratory species, conservation measures must include both spatial and temporal considerations to be effective, and we conclude with a brief review of the uneven and inadequate distribution of Important Bat Areas (AICOMs) in Paraguay.

Many terrestrial vertebrate species are exhibiting geographic distribution changes including poleward range limit shifts in response to increases in regional temperature. Bats are a highly mobile taxa capable of rapid responses to changes in abiotic or biotic conditions. In North America, recent extralimital records of the non-hibernating Lasiurus seminolus (Seminole bat) have been attributed to climate change, however such attributions remain speculative and potentially subject to sampling bias in the form of increased recent sampling efforts at latitudes north of the historical range. We used historical occurrence records and simple environmental variables within a Maxent modeling framework to model the historical distribution of suitable areas for this species. We transferred the model using near current environmental conditions and measured the ability of the model to capture the apparent expansion in distribution using recent extralimital occurrence records. Our model transferred well over time concluding that the distribution expansion may be largely attributed to increasing minimum temperatures. We used the model to forecast the expansion in distribution of suitable areas at three 20-year intervals and various climate change scenarios and provide extrapolation risk maps for each scenario. Although increasing temperatures may increase potentially occupiable areas, the species is associated with forests and often roosts in pines (Pinus spp.). This suitable habitat is more limited to the northwest of the species' range, which may constrain the future species expansion despite favorable temperatures. We demonstrated this effect by mapping limiting factors through future climate change scenarios. We discovered a broad shift of effects that constrained the distribution from minimum temperature to an abundance metric of evergreen cover type as time and climate change intensity increased. Although uncertainties exist, we predict further expansion of the Seminole bat widely over the next 60 years across the eastern United States where suitable habitat and climate conditions converge. Our results appear consistent with other bat species showing similar range extensions and in turn provide further evidence that bats may serve as bioindicators of global change.

Bioacoustics can be a non-invasive, cost-effective way of studying echolocating bats, and is especially useful for detecting and identifying rare or cryptic species. The insectivorous bats of Madagascar are understudied in comparison to the rest of the island's fauna, and very little is known about their habitat use. Here, we used a remote bioacoustic surveying technique in a bat survey of the Sahamalaza-Îles Radama National Park, northwest Madagascar, to study constant frequency echolocating bats (Hipposideridae and Rhinonycteridae). We used two passive acoustic monitoring units to automatically record bat activity from dusk until dawn in a range of habitat types that are characteristic of the region. Analysis of call acoustic parameters revealed three distinct constant-frequency phonic types within the national park, which we identified as Commerson's leaf-nosed bat (Macronycteris commersoni), the red trident bat (Triaenops menamena) and an unknown phonic type of ca. 78 kHz. We found significant differences in the habitat usage of these three species, suggesting species-specific habitat preferences among Madagascar's bats. Our statistical analyses revealed significant differences between the acoustic echolocation calls of these three phonic types. The 78 kHz calls do not match any of the other constant frequency-calling bat species currently described for Madagascar, indicating either acoustic divergence among bat sub-populations or the possible existence of a new undescribed species. These results highlight the need for increased survey efforts to gain an understanding of species-specific geographic distributions and habitat usage among Malagasy bats and to disentangle their cryptic species complexes.

The alteration of landscape by anthropogenic activity has reduced the foraging habitats of insectivorous bats. Thus it is important to understand the habitat selections of insectivorous bats and patterns of prey availability, especially in human-altered environments. We investigated bat activity in five classified habitats, namely: old-growth forest, remnant forest, citrus orchard, cornfield and paddy field in the forest-dominated Himalayan country of Bhutan. We monitored bat activity acoustically across 120 sites from May to November 2018. Thirteen different taxa and one unknown QCF bat were identified from 2,558 bat passes. Overall bat activity was dominated by open-space foragers such as Scotophilus kuhlii, Taphozous sp., Otomops wroughtoni and Nyctalus leisleri, showing comparative variations in habitat selection. But, Rhinolophus specifically, R. luctus was rarely present in open habitats such as cornfield and paddy fields, and was found to be one of the most abundant species in cluttered habitats, e.g., old-growth forest and remnant forest. Bat activity was higher in old-growth forest compared to paddy and remnant forest, but was not significantly different from cornfield and citrus orchard. Insect biomass positively correlated with bat activity. Our findings suggest that the habitat selection of insectivorous bats is influenced by prey abundance and habitat types. Although remnant forest was poorly associated with insect prey, the species richness of bats found there was almost equal to that of old-growth forest. Thus, remnant forest was found to be an important habitat, apparently serving as a corridor for the narrow-space foragers in the study landscape in Bhutan.

Conversion of natural land covers to agriculture is a major cause of the global biodiversity decline. Bats are an important component of biodiversity in agricultural landscapes because they provide pest control services. Although management recommendations towards the enhancement of insectivorous bat populations in agro-ecosystems have previously been highlighted, little information is available for promoting bat conservation within viticultural landscapes. In the present study, we examined the role of the adjacent habitat on bat activity in vineyards of central Chile. We also evaluated differences in bat activity between the edges and the interiors of the vineyards in relation to the type of adjacent habitat. To accomplish this, we conducted acoustic surveys along edge and the interior of 16 vineyards bordering different adjacent habitats. Overall bat activity in vineyards was not influenced by the adjacent habitat type, but it was by the location within the vineyard; edges showed significant higher activity than the interior of the vineyards. Vineyards adjacent to native vegetation showed the highest levels of activity for Lasiurus varius, Lasiurus villosissimus and Myotis chiloensis compared to those adjacent to monoculture or urban areas. All bat species were most active at the edges of the vineyards as compared to the interior, which increase the probability of this group providing ecosystem services in vineyards. Therefore, vineyard edges, in particular those adjacent to native vegetation, should be considered as part of agricultural management in order to promote bat diversity and abundance in this crop.

Roads have a multitude of negative effects on wildlife, including bat casualties. Most bat species rely on life history traits characterised by high adult survival (associated with greater longevity) and low reproduction rates (hence slow population growth rates). Therefore, road kills are expected to negatively affect local abundance and bat population dynamics. Bat overpasses are among the proposed improvements intended to increase bat flight height to reduce collisions, but their effectiveness has rarely been tested. In this study, we performed a before-after analysis to assess the effectiveness of one bat overpass on bat flight height. We used a novel approach, the bat tracking toolbox (BTT), to reconstruct bat flight paths from thermal videos. We obtained 268 bat flight paths and our results showed that the flight height of bats increased significantly after the installation of the bat overpass. Considering that bat overpasses can help in some situations to increase habitat connectivity and reduce the collision risk, this mitigation measure needs to be further investigated in different contexts of road construction and/or road requalification.

The availability of suitable roosts is an important factor affecting the viability of bat populations. In Europe and North-America, the installation of artificial roosts is a standard conservation measure to mitigate the loss of tree cavities or crevices at buildings. How quickly artificial roosts, such as bat boxes, are adopted, depends on how easily the bats can find them, and on their suitability for roosting. While there is some information about how the design of bat boxes influences their occupancy, it is unknown to what extent the use of bat boxes depends on their detectability. In this experimental field study, we studied the roost selection behavior of three forest-living bat species. We investigated whether attaching an external echo-reflector to bat boxes influenced the time until the bats discover a box or the total number of discovered boxes, which are proxies for detectability. We also assessed whether this modification improved the occupancy of newly placed boxes, as a proxy for their attractiveness. As a result of a previous study, all studied bat colonies were familiar with the echo-reflector as an indicator for the suitability of bat boxes as a day roost. For each species, we compared between boxes with and without an echo-reflector, the number of boxes discovered, the number of days elapsed until discovery, the number of subsequent visits, and the number of days that each box type was used as day roosts. Myotis bechsteinii and Myotis nattereri discovered, visited and used more unmodified boxes than boxes with echo-reflectors. Plecotus auritus did not show differences in behavior with regard to the box types. Our results show that attaching an echo-reflector to newly placed artificial roosts does not improve their discovery and subsequent occupation, even when bats are already familiar with this cue as an indicator of suitability. We discuss the implication of our findings for bat conservation.

Bats spend half of their lives in their roosts, which play vital roles in the life histories of the bats that occupy them. More than half of all bat species roost in foliage. Within the Neotropics, 17 species of bat are known to modify foliage into structures referred to as ‘tents'. Of these species, Thomas's fruit eating bat (Dermanura watsoni) uses the widest range of plant species for roosts, constructing five different tent types. However, the factors influencing the distribution and quantity of tents are not fully understood for this species. The aims of our study were to investigate whether (1) micro-habitat characteristics influence the number of tents on individual plants and (2) macro-habitat features influence the frequency of plants used for tent-roosting in the surrounding landscape. Our results demonstrate that the distribution of tents was influenced by proximity to freshwater, with 48.8% of tents within 100 m of freshwater resources. Additionally, D. watsoni constructed tents in sheltered habitats with a high cover abundance of trees. These types of habitat areas should be targeted for conservation efforts to conserve this species.

Neotropical tent roosting bats are in the family Phyllostomidae, in which Artibeus watsoni uses the greatest diversity of plants as a roost. Currently, eight styles of tents are known, and their descriptions are based on leaf size, shape, and the number of cuts needed to create it. Here, we describe the preference for the construction, tent design, and occupation of palmate umbrella tents that A. watsoni built in two sympatric Carludovica species in a Costa Rican tropical rainforest. We predicted a preference by A. watsoni to build tents between the sympatric Carludovica species due to leaf differences or other variables of selection. We also explored the spatial distribution of multiple tent designs. Ten rectangular plots (500 × 20 m) were established, and we counted the number of plants, leaves, and tents of each plant species, as well as to explored the spatial distribution of the tent designs. We found a total of 1787 plants (9222 leaves) of C. drudei and 640 plants (3732 leaves) of C. rotundifolia. The proportion of tents per leaf in each plant species was significantly higher in C. drudei than in C. rotundifolia, and those differences were significant (Z = -2.83, d.f. = 4, P < 0.01). We described six tent designs for the umbrella architecture (semicircle, combined, heart, triangle, spatula, and partial). The abundance of these designs varied significantly between the Carludovica species. Our results suggest that A. watsoni exhibits a preference among sympatric plants of the same genus. However, this is a complex and dynamic process that depends on multiple variables. This is the first study systematically describing the tent designs that A. watsoni creates within the palmate umbrella tents. These findings contribute to the knowledge of tent roosting bats in the Neotropics and provide more insight into the complexity of their behavior.

Extensive areas of old forests have declined all over the temperate regions of Europe mainly due to extensive forestry. This is likely to have negative impact on bats that roost in trees, such as the western barbastelle Barbastella barbastellus. We investigated its selection of summer roosts in a commercially used landscape in southern Sweden. We captured and radio-tracked 14 bats and found 17 occupied roosts. Nine of the roosts, including two used by a maternity colony (ca. 30 females), were located between overlapping boards on the gables of barns. The remaining eight roosts, all used by single individuals, were under lose bark on thin trees (DBH = 0.2–0.35 m). All recorded roosts had entrances pointing downwards, were adjacent to deciduous trees providing protective darkness, and were in areas without artificial lighting. In the barns, the bats avoided the northern aspect, which is the lightest (sun sets in the NW and rises in the NE). Roost temperatures did not differ between tree- and barn roosts. Average ambient light intensity on emergence and return was 13.3 lux (SD = 10.1 lux). Roosts in trees and barns shared common physical characteristics, yet despite this both maternity roosts were located in barns, perhaps because such roosts had more space than available tree roosts. Our results suggest that in areas deprived of large trees and extensive old forest, barbastelle shows flexibility in roost selection, although they consistently avoid artificial lights of all kinds. An abundance of potential roosts in trees and buildings and absence of light pollution are therefore key elements in a holistic conservation program for this species.

Caves are among the most used and important roosts for hundreds of bat species worldwide. However, caves remain some of the least known and most threatened environments globally. Documenting the richness of bat species in caves is important not only to draw attention to the uniqueness and relevance of these roosts, but it also contributes to the identification of priority sites for the conservation of bats and the cave fauna dependent upon them. Here, we assessed and described an exceptionally high bat richness in a group of caves in southeastern Tocantins, central Brazil. Inventories carried out in 19 caves resulted in seven families and 31 bat species, of which three were new regional records. Twelve caves were used by threatened and endangered bat species, eight had high diversity indices, and seven caves had high species richness, including one cave that may hold a world record with 26 bat species found inside. The variation in beta diversity is mainly due to species turnover, which indicates that protecting the largest possible number of caves would be ideal for the most efficient conservation of local bat assemblages. The sampled region stands out for its high potential for the conservation of endangered species, and we strongly recommend the full protection of 15 caves classified as a priority for conservation.

The monitoring of bats across the world is mostly conducted using invasive mist-netting, whereby vertical nets are placed to capture bats mid-flight. Many studies have demonstrated how this approach causes sampling bias, is labor-intensive and increases the risk of white-nose syndrome fungus, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, transmission among bats. Increasingly, acoustic devices are being employed to collect data on bat activity and richness. Community-based monitoring is an important data collection source for bat monitoring programs in countries such as the UK (National Bat Monitoring Program), whereby walking bat transects are conducted using bat detectors. Since the launch of smartphone devices to record and auto-identify bat echolocation calls, the quality of data collection that community members can collect has increased significantly, however, this approach is seldom used to generate data in scientific studies. In our study, we have showcased how our study design paired with state of the art acoustic monitoring devices, can be applied to community-based monitoring of bats across the world. Through employing smartphone acoustic devices, we have determined how primary and secondary vegetation cover are predictors of bat species occurrence and identified the importance of riverine and deciduous swamp habitats for rare bat species in southwestern Ontario.

Emerging infectious diseases may become serious threats to wildlife, a prominent example being the white-nose disease (WND). In case of WND, the cold-loving fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans colonizes bats during hibernation, invades the skin and has already lead to the death of millions of bats in North America. P. destructans most likely originated from Europe, where it also causes lesions but without associated mortalities. However, it is still unclear how European bats cope with the fungus. Hence, it is important to have tools that precisely characterise disease progression. Because hibernation is a physiological state during which bats are vulnerable to disturbance, in-situ assessments of the clinical status should be carried out minimal-invasively to avoid detrimental impacts on bats. However, currently available disease assessment methods require handling/touching bats and are therefore invasive: i) UV-light trans-illumination of wing membranes to detect lesions and ii) a qPCR-based quantification of fungal material from wing membrane swabs. Since P. destructans (‘Pd') becomes visible on all furless skin with distinct distribution patterns, we investigated the use of visible symptoms to assess levels of infections without handling/touching bats. We introduce a technique which we termed ‘Visual Pd-score’ (a visual classification scheme), which can be applied without disturbing the animals. To assess its reliability, we used P. destructans infected greater mouse-eared bats (Myotis myotis) to compare the novel method with the two existing golden-standard techniques. Our results show that infection levels obtained from all three techniques are correlated. Importantly, the information carried by the Visual Pd-score is most similar to a composite index combining the information from the qPCR-based and UV-light quantification methods. We conclude that the Visual Pd-score represents a promising index to better characterise disease severity as it is simultaneously representative for fungal colonization and wing damage. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of the applied techniques and conclude that the Visual Pd-score is particularly useful for routine hibernacula counts or large-scale P. destructans-surveillance. In combination with the lesion detection technique the new method is also applicable to immunological studies where both fungal colonization and associated damage have to be investigated, while qPCRs from swabs of all body parts are especially useful if it is necessary to detect cryptic infections, e.g. during the early hibernation period.