Alates of the fungus-growing termite Macrotermes natalensis (Haviland), a pest of building structures and forestry, were collected during swarming flights in Pretoria, South Africa (25°43′S 28°14′E), during the early summers of 1997 and 1998. Incipient colonies were reared in the laboratory with colony foundation and development and caste differentiation being observed over three months. Early colony mortality was high, with only a 4 % survival rate over three months. Oviposition began 4–12 days after pairing, with all females collected after a specific swarming flight starting to lay on the same day. The oviposition rate was initially high, with a mean of 17.85 (S.E. ± 1.314) eggs per individual being laid in the initial clutch; thereafter, the rate decreased to a mean of 1.7 (S.E. ± 0.078) eggs per day. Following hatching, the rate of oviposition decreased further to 0.9 eggs per day (S.E. ± 0.3049). Incubation of eggs varied between 20 and 34 days. As with oviposition, hatching started on the same day in all colonies set up after a specific swarming flight; however, not all the eggs laid on that specific date hatched simultaneously. Second (L2) and third (L3) instar larvae first appeared in the colonies a mean of 6.6 (S.E. ± 0.578) days and 11.5 (S.E. ± 0.3193) days, respectively, after the first eggs hatched. The first pre-soldier (SPS), which developed from a third instar larva, was differentiated a mean of 21.85 (S.E. ± 0.748) days after hatching, with the first soldier (SS) appearing 30.75 (S.E. ± 0.4787) days following hatching. The first major (LW) and minor (SW) workers were differentiated respectively 26 ± 0.660 and 28 ± 0.905 days after hatching. Approximately three months after alates had left the parent nest, workers began foraging. At three months, the single surviving colony contained 60 individuals. No large soldier (LS) had differentiation by 20 months.

Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattaria: Blattellidae), the German cockroach, is worldwide the most invasive pest of dwellings, with an increasing resistance to various groups of insecticides. To prevent this problem, special attention is being paid to the new bait insecticides with novel action mechanisms. Therefore, a survey was designed to consider bait efficacy containing abamectin (Vendetta^®), dinotefuran (Alpine^®), imidacloprid (Invict Gold^™) and pyriproxyfen + abamectin (Vendetta Plus^®) against the German cockroach. Six cockroach strains including susceptible (reference strain), and five fresh field strains were used in the study. To achieve bait efficacy, the experiments and bait placements were designed according to the WHO (World Health Organisation) method. Although the cockroach strains fed on and were attracted to all investigated baits, baits containing abamectin B₁ and pyriproxyfen + abamectin B₁ were ingested at higher rates than baits containing dinotefuran and imidacloprid. Based on rank of bait consumption it was concluded that the rank of the bait attractiveness are baits containing abamectin, pyriproxyfen + abamectin, dinotefuran and imidacloprid in this order. While it seems that the efficacy of the dinotefuran and imidacloprid baits would be better than the pyriproxyfen + abamectin and abamectin baits due to them achieving 100 % cumulative mortality rates after cockroach feeding of 2 days (48 h) and 2 days (48 h) than 6 days (164 h) and 7 days (188 h), respectively. Based on results of the study, baits containing abamectin, dinotefuran, imidacloprid and abamectin + pyriproxyfen can be recommended to control B. germanica.

Glycaspis brimblecombei (Hemiptera: Aphalaridae) is an invasive, sap-sucking eucalypt pest in various parts of the world. Psyllaephagus bliteus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) was first released as a biological control agent against this pest in California in 2000. Since then, P. bliteus has been found with its insect pest host, with no intentional introduction, in various South American, European and North African countries, and recently South Africa. Here we report on host specificity studies of P. bliteus in South Africa in order to determine potential risks to non-target hosts. Non-target test insects included the only native lerp-forming psyllid in South Africa, Retroacizzia mopani (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), as well as two free-living and one lerp-forming psyllid that are not native but also feed on Eucalyptus species. Psyllaephagus bliteus was monitored during no-choice tests for antennation, probing and oviposition behaviours towards the test insects. In addition, P. bliteus was enclosed on live plants infested with the test insects which were then monitored for offspring of P. bliteus. Retroacizzia mopani and the non-native free-living psyllids were not attacked, but P. bliteus did attack and develop on the non-native lerp psyllid, Spondyliaspis cf. plicatuloides (Hemiptera: Aphalaridae). Choice tests were then undertaken with G. brimblecombei and S. cf. plicatuloides, and G. brimblecombei was found to be the preferred host. The results indicate that the risk of P. bliteus to native insects is low, but that the host range of P. bliteus is not restricted to Glycaspis spp. and Creiis costatus (Hemiptera: Aphalaridae) as previously thought. The host range of P. bliteus may thus include other lerp-forming insects on eucalypts, especially those within the Spondyliaspidinae.

Between 2012 and 2018 a total of 2094 individual birds representing 265 species (168 passeriformes and 97 non-passeriformes), 70 families (32 passeriformes and 38 non-passeriformes) and 21 orders were sampled for louse-flies and other ectoparasites in different locations in all nine provinces of South Africa. A total of 153 louse-flies of six genera and 16 taxa were recorded: Crataerina acutipennis, Icosta meda, I. minor, I. pilosa, Icosta sp. 1–3, Ornithoica turdi, Ornithoica sp. 1, Ornithomya avicularia, O. biloba, O. fur, Ornithophila metallica, Pseudolynchia canariensis, P. garzettae and Pseudolynchia sp. Louse-flies were found on 137 birds (prevalence 6.5 %) of 78 species from 11 orders. In total we report 93 host-parasite associations of which 84 are reported here for the first time. We found statistically significant higher prevalence and mean abundance of louse-flies in autumn and spring. However, mean intensity was not different between the four seasons. Cases of phoresy of chewing lice, fungal infection and mite infestations of flies are reported and discussed. Available sequences of COI, EF and 16S rRNA genes of examined genera of louse-flies were used in order to assess relative genetic divergence among louse-fly populations.

In honeybee (Apis mellifera), odorant receptors (Ors) play a crucial role in special recognition of sex pheromones in honeybee mating activities. Four candidate sex pheromone Ors (AmOr10, AmOr11, AmOr18 and AmOr170) have been identified and found to be preferentially expressed in drone antennae. However, few studies have investigated the regulation of these four drone Ors on drone mating behaviour. This study characterised the expression patterns of these Ors across different sexual developmental stages (immature and sexually mature) and different physiological statuses (flying and crawling), using both the antennae and brains of drones. qRT-PCR results indicated that the expression of four Ors were not significantly different in drone antennae between flying and crawling statuses at immature stage. However, all four Ors expression levels in brains of flying drones were significantly higher than those of crawling drones at mature stage. Moreover, only the expression level of Or170 was significantly higher in antennae of mature flying drones than crawling ones. Therefore, this study demonstrated a link between four candidate sex pheromone Ors transcriptional expression in the brains of honeybee drones and behaviour associated with sexual maturity and mating flight. In addition, Or170 might be involved in the maturation of honeybee drones' olfactory system, and in the organisation of odour-mediated mating behaviours.

Since 1758 cockroaches have been collected and described from Egypt by several authors. The relationships within the superorder Dictyoptera have been debated in the literature. The Egyptian cockroaches of the family Ectobiidae (Blattodea) are reviewed. Five species in five genera are recognised, including Blattella germanica, Chorisia reducta, Phyllodromica nilotica, Supella longipalpa and Matabeli natreitlina. Gene sequence of 28s ribosomal RNA is provided for Chorisia reducta (Walker) for the first time. The PCR product was found to be about 512 bp long, after sequencing this result aligned with the GenBank data then constructing the phylogenetic tree by using Mega 0.6 program. Colour images, specimens examined and distributions are given for each species.

The present study describes the population dynamics of Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) in Manica Province (Mozambique), provides estimates of mango yield, economic losses and the economic injury level. From September 2014 to August 2015, methyl eugenol-baited traps were placed in three selected orchards (Trangapasso, Produssola and Pandafarm) and mango fruits were collected and incubated. Data on potential yield was estimated in each of the orchards and the owners were interviewed to collect information regarding mango selling prices. Differences in B. dorsalis catches, percentage of damaged fruits and infestation rates were determined across locations as well as sampling dates. The economic injury level (EIL) was estimated for each orchard. The populations of B. dorsalis started to build up in November 2014 reaching an abundance peak in January 2015 (40.26 flies/trap/day). Population growth was correlated to average temperature, month and host availability. The highest percentage of damaged fruits (77.16 %) and the highest rates of infestation (41.27 %, B. dorsalis/kg) were recorded during January. Average yield losses associated with fruit flies were estimated at 5.65 t/ha with a financial loss of USD 3428.97/ha. EIL varied among orchards and was estimated at 33.14 B. dorsalis/trap/week on average.

This study, using the combination index (CI) isobologram equation, evaluated the efficacy of indoxacarb in binary mixtures with lufenuron, methoxyfenozide, chlorpyrifos, profenofos, and lambda-cyhalothrin against second instar larvae of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.). The efficacy of individual insecticides and their binary mixtures were evaluated using a leaf dipping technique. Percentage mortality was calculated after 72 h of treatment. The results indicated that indoxacarb was highly effective against second instar larvae of S. littoralis where the LC₅₀ was 0.041 mg/l. Lambda-cyhalothrin was the least effective insecticide. Among the five binary mixtures tested, the indoxacarb/chlorpyrifos mixture was the most effective against second instar larvae where the calculated CI values for this mixture were 0.17, 0.12, and 0.21 at LC₁₀, LC₂₅, and LC₅₀, respectively. Latent effects of binary mixtures on some biological parameters of S. littoralis were also evaluated where some of the tested mixtures showed a significant effect on the biological parameters measured.

Field evaluation of an auto-rotate gun sprayer and comparison with a knapsack sprayer was carried out to control whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) in the cotton crop. Two experiments were conducted at six locations of farmers' fields in southwestern (cotton-growing region) of Punjab state. The number of adult whiteflies was counted before and 3, 7 and 10 days after spray. Water-sensitive papers were attached at upper and under side of the leaves at three different points (top, middle and bottom) of plant canopy to find sprayers performance parameters, viz. droplet diameter, droplet density, per cent area covered and volume of spray deposition. Droplet density, area covered and volume of spray deposition were found significantly higher in case of the auto-rotate gun sprayer as compared to that of a knapsack sprayer. However, the volume median diameter of droplets was found significantly lesser in case of an auto-rotate gun sprayer, i.e. 286.95 µm as compared to the knapsack sprayer, i.e. 347.85 µm. The per cent whitefly control in the cotton crop in first experiment was found as 68.06 % and 65.90 % for auto-rotate gun and knapsack sprayer, respectively, by using pyriproxyfen 100 g active ingredient (g a.i.)/ha. Although in the second experiment the per cent whitefly control for auto-rotate gun sprayer was significantly higher, i.e. 83.27 % as compared to knapsack sprayer having 70.87 % control by using flonicamid 75 g a.i./ha. However, the bio-efficacy of auto-rotate gun sprayer was found higher for the both experiments as compared to the knapsack sprayer. The cost of operation of the auto-rotate gun sprayer was found to be US$4.11/ha as compared to knapsack sprayer with $6.85/ha. The cost, labour and time-saving in the spraying with the auto-rotate gun sprayer as compared to the knapsack sprayer was found to be 39.98, 93.44 and 96.64 %, respectively.

The purpose of this study was to describe the structure and composition of Diptera in Moroccan vineyard, using wet-traps sampling technique throughout 2017. The study focused on five varieties within Loudaya vineyard (west region of Marrakech, Morocco). Eleven different fly species were identified belonging to 10 families, Ceratitis capitata, Drosophilla suzukii and Thaumatiya notata were the most abundant species and first time behaviourally dominant flies species. In addition, more flies were captured in the local varieties (10 579 individuals) than in the introduced ones (966). Moreover, a significant difference was observed in fly richness, evenness and diversity between varieties. Fly community structure in Loudaya showed a clear seasonal dynamics, which richness, abundance, diversity and evenness were significantly (P < 0.001) dissimilar among months. Furthermore, Diptera species were positively influenced by humidity and rainfall. Richness (expected by sample-based rarefaction) and diversity peaked in the middle of vineyard phenology, corresponding to mid-spring to late-summer in all varieties. Fly species occurrence and seasonal climatic variation in Loudaya vineyard might be among various ecological factors such as habitat distribution, climate and the availability of resources. Taking into account the periods of fly abundance, the survey could give relevant indications on new approaches to integrated pest management (IPM) in Moroccan vineyards, particularly in the Loudaya region.

A laboratory study was conducted to evaluate resistance of 10 groundnut varieties (Tsosabana, Peolwane, Nakwana, Sellie, GO74, GO15, GO73, BMM188, GO64-B and BMM268) against Plodia interpunctella using life table parameters of the insect and level of seed damage. Fecundity and survival, longevity, intrinsic rate increase (r_m), net reproduction rate (R₀), generation time (T), doubling time (Td) as well as finite rate of increase (λ) were used. The hypothesis of this study was that negative effects of groundnut varieties on life table parameters of P. interpunctella will indicate levels of resistance. Fecundity, survival and R₀ varied significantly among varieties while the rest of parameters showed no significant differences. The lowest number of eggs laid and hatchability per female were significantly lower on variety BMM268. Gravid females stopped laying eggs by day 8 on Sellie and BMM268. The survival rates of P. interpunctella were lower on BMM268 and Sellie and the larvae were all dead by day 8. Plodia interpunctella had short life expectancy of 8 days when reared on varieties Sellie and BMM268 compared to other varieties. Variety BMM268 had significantly lower R₀ than other varieties. Based on means, there was also a slightly prolonged larval developmental period on variety BMM268 than other varieties though not significant. Considering damage, varieties Sellie and BMM268 also had the lowest number of tunnels than others except G064-B. Susceptibility index ranged from 3.12–6.91 amongst varieties and the lowest was recorded on BMM268 followed by Sellie. This study shows that Sellie and BMM 268 are relatively unsuitable as hosts, indicating some level of resistance to P. interpunctella. The two groundnut varieties can be used in integrated pest management programmes to reduce damage caused by P. interpunctella during storage.

Natural plant extracts, especially essential oils, are used largely against plant pests. The aim of this study was to investigate the bio-insecticidal effect of chemical extracts of three plants, Mentha pulegium L. (Lamiales: Lamiaceae), Lavandula stoechas L. (Lamiales: Lamiaceae) and Ruta chalepensis L. (Sapindales: Rutaceae) collected from Tunisia, on the lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius, 1792) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), which is a primary pest of stored wheat. To reach this goal, we firstly did bio-assays to test the toxicity of these plant extracts on R. dominica adults using different concentrations of plant extracts on wheat seeds. Secondly, we analysed the chemical compounds of these plant extracts using GC-MS and GC-FID. Our results demonstrated that R. dominica mortality was significantly higher with increasing plant essential oils concentrations (CL₉₅ values 45.68, 113.12 and 170.52 µl/l_(air)) for M. pulegium, R. chalepensis and L. stoechas, respectively. The main chemical compounds identified of M. pulegium oils were: pulegone (76.9 %), isomenthone (12.0 %) and limonene (1.73 %), whereas those from L. stoechas were: camphor (23.8 %), 1,8-cineole (17.8 %) and camphene (7.69 %). Ruta chalepensis oil revealed high contents of undecanone (51.2 %), 2-nonanone (39.16 %) and 2-decanone (2.32 %). Our results also showed that M. pulegium essential oil has a significant effect against R. dominica with LC₅₀ value of 13.51 µl/l_(air) compared to R. chalepensis and L. stoechas corresponding to 39.11 and 42.9 µl/l_(air), respectively.

In the present study, the variations in the nutritional physiology and midgut ultrastructure of fourth-instar larvae of the Egyptian cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis, treated with the essential oils of garlic (Allium sativum) and lemon (Citrus limon), were compared to those of control larvae. The food consumption index, relative growth rate and approximate digestibility of the treated larvae were significantly decreased. In contrast, the efficiency of conversion of both ingested and digested food to body mass was significantly increased. The midgut ultrastructural variations included vacuolisation of the columnar cells, clumping of the nuclear chromatin, disorder of microvilli, loss of cytoplasmic projections of the goblet cells, disorganisation of mitochondria and appearance of residual bodies. It seems likely that mitochondria are the target site of garlic and lemon essential oils. The overall results suggest that the essential oils of garlic and lemon under investigation interfere with the nutritional physiology and ultrastructure of the midgut of S. littoralis larvae and have potential for their control. Future studies will be undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of garlic and lemon oils under field conditions.

Lycium ferocissimum Miers (Solanaceae) is an indigenous shrub in South Africa but has become invasive in several countries including Australia, where chemical and mechanical control methods have proved costly and unsustainable. In Australia, biological control is being considered as a management option, but the herbivorous insects associated with the plant in its native range are not well known. The aim of this study was to survey the phytophagous insects associated with L. ferocissimum in South Africa and prioritise promising biological control agents. In South Africa, the plant occurs in two geographically distinct areas, the Eastern and Western Cape provinces. Surveys for phytophagous insects on L. ferocissimum were carried out repeatedly over a two-year period in these two regions. The number of insect species found in the Eastern Cape Province (55) was higher than that in the Western Cape Province (41), but insect diversity based on Shannon indices was highest in the Western Cape Province. Indicator species analysis revealed eight insect herbivore species driving the differences in the herbivore communities between the two provinces. Based on insect distribution, abundance, feeding preference and available literature, three species were prioritised as potential biological control agents. These include the leaf-chewing beetles Cassida distinguenda Spaeth (Chrysomelidae) and Cleta eckloni Mulsant (Coccinellidae) and the leaf-mining weevil Neoplatygaster serietuberculata Gyllenhal (Curculionidae).

The banded fruit weevil (BFW), Phlyctinus callosus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is a major indigenous pest of deciduous fruits and grapevine in the Western Cape province of South Africa. Entomopathogens are effective in controlling soil-borne and above-ground stages of insect pests. Soil samples were collected from deciduous fruit orchards and vineyards in the Western Cape, baited with mealworms to isolate entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) and entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), which were identified using molecular techniques and assessed for their potential as biocontrol agents of BFW adults. A correlation analysis was performed to determine the effect of soil parameters on the presence of the entomopathogens. EPNs were trapped in 12 (17 %) samples, while Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Heterorhabditis safricana were the only two species isolated. EPF were isolated from 26 (37 %) samples baited, with 14 fungal isolates identified as Beauveria bassiana (Cordycipitaceae) and 12 identified as Metarhizium anisopliae (Clavicipitaceae) complex. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (53 %) gave significantly higher (P < 0.05) control of adult BFW than H. safricana (37 %). Metarhizium anisopliae (79 %) gave significantly higher (P < 0.05) control of BFW adults than B. bassiana (63 %). Organic matter, magnesium and phosphorus had a negative relationship with the occurrence of EPNs. A negative relationship was also reported between the occurrence of EPF, and organic matter and potassium. The results indicated that soils from the deciduous fruit orchards and vineyards from the Western Cape contain both EPNs and EPF with potential to be used in an integrated pest management system against soil-borne and above-ground stages of BFW.

This study aimed to use honey bees, Apis mellifera L., as bioindicator for a regional survey of heavy metal pollution in Alexandria city, Egypt. Honeybees were obtained from four different sites namely Abu Qir (AQ), Agricultural Road (AR), Khorshid (KR) and El-Sabahia (SB). Correlation between heavy metals and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) as a biomarker was also examined. The mean concentration of measured elements (µg/g) ranged from 2.20–5.78, 1.53–0.83, 3.95–11.40, 19.10–44.43 and ND–4.25 (ND = not detected) for Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd, respectively. The highest mean value of metal quantities over a period of 5 months was Zn and the highest concentration mean for Zn and metals as a total occurred at the KR site. The highest mean values of AChE activity were noted in honey bees sampled from SB and KR followed by AQ and AR. However, AChE was found to positively correlate significantly with Zn. Our results suggest that AChE could be useful as a biomarker in honey bees exposed to Zn and may constitute a valuable biomonitor to assess environmental pollution by metals.

Busseola fusca and Fusarium verticillioides are considered the most important pest and pathogen, respectively, of maize in South Africa. Busseola fusca tunnels into stems and ears of maize plants, whereas F. verticillioides causes Fusarium ear rot and deposits fumonisins in maize kernels. Frass (excreta) deposited by B. fusca larvae in maize stems and ears during feeding could potentially be contaminated with pathogens such as F. verticillioides, thereby indirectly and passively contributing to plant diseases. The mycoflora present in frass of B. fusca larvae was thus investigated in this study, and the dissemination of fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. by B. fusca larvae in maize stems determined. Busseola fusca frass was collected from plants with visible insect damage in three maize-growing districts in South Africa. The mycoflora in the frass was isolated and identified morphologically to genus level, followed by the sequencing of target genes for species identification. Species of Acremonium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Mucor, Rhizopus and Talaromyces were associated with the B. fusca frass. The role of B. fusca larvae in disseminating fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. was then determined in greenhouse and field trials. Maize whorls were inoculated with F. verticillioides MRC826 spores 4 weeks after plant emergence, and infested with B. fusca larvae 2 days later. The stems were split open after 3 weeks and frass collected from feeding channels, thereafter, target DNA of fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. was quantified using real-time PCR. Target DNA of fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. was significantly higher in frass collected from greenhouse plants inoculated with F. verticillioides than in frass collected from the uninoculated control, indicating that the inoculation was successful in the absence of soil-borne inoculum. Nevertheless, the field trial showed no significant differences in target DNA in frass from inoculated and non-inoculated plants. This is possibly due to natural F. verticillioides infection of maize plants in the field. This study further indicated that B. fusca frass also contained maize pathogens such as Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp., which could cause ear rot diseases. The occurrence of Acremonium zeae in frass has potential implications for the biological control of F. verticillioides, as the fungus produces pyrrocidines A and B antibiotics which are known to be antagonistic to F. verticillioides. The occurrence of Aspergillus niger in frass requires further investigation in order to clarify its role in fumonisin contamination of maize in South Africa.

Industries in Faisalabad are discharging their wastewater containing different kinds of heavy metals without treatment into sewerages. This wastewater is used to irrigate different crops and trees. This study was planned to observe the entry of Cd from inorganic to organic source and its effects on the lifecycle of Bombyx mori (L.). Mulberry plants were irrigated with Cd-containing synthetic effluents of different concentrations (25 to 200 mg/l) at pH 5, and different levels of pH (3 to 5) at 100 mg/l, to check against different instars of silkworm. The amount of Cd in the samples of soil, mulberry leaves, silkworm larvae, silkworm faeces and silk glands were determined by using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). The results showed that B. mori can be used as an indicator of Cd pollutants because its body weight, body length and mortality rate was directly related to Cd concentration. Greater toxicity to silkworms was observed at higher accumulation of Cd in mulberry leaves. Maximum accumulation of Cd in soil, mulberry plants, silkworm larvae, silk glands and silkworm faeces was observed at 200 mg/l Cd and pH 5. The maximum accumulations observed were 99.89 mg/kg, 95.67 mg/kg, 61.32 mg/kg, 58.97 mg/kg and 6.59 mg/kg, respectively. Silkworms can be successfully used as an indicator of heavy metal pollutants and their role can further be marked with changes in the development.

Urbanisation and its effects is one of the biggest and most critical environmental issues facing the world. In the present study, we evaluate the impact of urbanisation on the picture-winged flies (family Ulidiidae) communities in Wadi El-Natroun Depression, by assessing the changes in abundance and diversity. Six sites, each measuring about 2.1 ha, were determined: three sites (A1, A2, A3) are in an open area out of the city, and three sites (B1, B2, B3) are on the periphery of the city surrounded by inhabited buildings and assumed to suffer from anthropogenic activities (urbanised sites). The fly sampling was conducted monthly from January to December 2015 using sweep nets. Total abundance and species diversity of ulidiids in open sites were significantly higher than in urbanised sites. A similar population trend was recorded for Physiphora alceae (Preyssler) and Physiphora smaragdina (Loew). These species appear in early spring and increase gradually but were almost eliminated by the beginning of the fall. A bimodal seasonal profile was observed with two peaks of Ulidia fascialis Hendel density: April and July. The correlation between species abundance and temperature was positive, but it was only significant with P. alceae in the urbanised area and with P. smaragdina in the open area. In contrast, an inverse correlation was recorded between species abundance and relative humidity; however, it was only significant with P. alceae in open and urbanised areas. A scatter plot generated from a principal component analysis (PCA) of species abundance showed a clear grouping of the study sites based on whether they were open or urbanised. The results of the present study showed that the picture-winged flies were directly affected by the habitat changes related to urbanisation. Both species abundance and diversity were dramatically reduced in the urbanised area. Consequently, these flies could be potential habitat quality indicators.

The occurrence of an African soft scale Hemilecanium theobromae Newstead (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Coccidae) in India is reported for the first time. The scale was collected on phylloclades of Euphorbia caerulescens Haw. (family Euphorbiaceae) growing in rocky hills of Kailasagiri village, Chintamani Taluk, Chikkaballapur district in the state of Karnataka, South India. Herein we provide basic diagnostic information for H. theobromae for both live and slide-mounted specimens and discuss its affinities with closely-related species. A key to separate the four species of Hemilecanium recorded from the Oriental Region, i.e. Hemilecanium imbricans (Green), H. mangiferae Kondo & Williams, H. theobromae and H. uesatoi Kondo & Hardy, is provided. Aspects of the distribution and economic importance of H. theobromae are briefly discussed. The presence of this alien insect in India is alarming and represents a possible major threat to cacao plantations.

Wild and cultivated olives in the Western Cape of South Africa are direct or indirect hosts to a high diversity of Braconidae and Chalcidoidea wasps. Olive-associated Braconidae are known to parasitise the larvae of Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), and probably also Bactrocera biguttula (Bezzi). The lifestyle of olive-associated Chalcidoidea is not fully understood, and may include phytophagous, parasitoid and hyperparasitoid species. Some chalcids could represent olive seed wasps (OSW), a generic term that designates the seed feeders responsible for losses in commercial olive production. In order to obtain direct DNA-based evidence for the lifestyle of four putative OSW – Eupelmus spermophilus Silvestri, Eurytoma oleae Silvestri, Eurytoma varicolor Silvestri, Sycophila aethiopica (Silvestri); and the parasitoid Neochrysocharis formosus (Westwood) – we developed a multiplex PCR assay comprising species-specific primers for each species. The assay was used to survey larvae collected from the seeds of wild and cultivated olives. Eupelmus spermophilus was the most abundant species in wild and cultivated olives, and may represent a threat to the local olive industry. Eurytoma oleae was found only within the seeds of wild olives, and may also represent an OSW. We found direct evidence supporting the potential agricultural relevance of S. aethiopica and E. varicolor as parasitoids of E. spermophilus. These results may inform strategies for the management and control of OSW in the Western Cape.

In the face of butterfly species extinction on Seychelles and Mascarene archipelagos, there is an urgent need of increasing our knowledge about species, especially those which have been extinct from one island. Here, we focus on Antanartia borbonica (Oberthür, 1880), a threatened Mascarene butterfly, extinct from Mauritius and considered locally endangered (EN) on Réunion by the French IUCN committee. On Réunion, we investigated the way A. borbonica distribution changes throughout the year depending on elevation and temperature. We confirm previous observations suggesting a seasonal displacement along the elevational gradient: A. borbonica spends the winter in low-elevation areas and moves to higher ones during summer. This biological trait implies conservation actions considering the restoration of suitable habitats for this species along the elevational gradient. The priority, to ensure the long-term conservation of this species, is to create refuges especially in urban and secondary habitats located in lowland areas where relatively preserved ecosystems no longer exist.

Two South African Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) strains, PPRI 7598 (non-commercial) and PPRI 7861 (commercial), were compared for virulence against the Russian wheat aphid (RWA), Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov). Pre-selection (21 isolates) of the most virulent strain was based on >95 % mortality of the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) larvae and >90 % conidial germination. In comparison with the chemical standard, Aphox^® WG (pirimicarb), which induced 100 % aphid mortality within 24 h, both B. bassiana strains were confirmed pathogenic to D. noxia over seven days post-inoculation. The B. bassiana strain PPRI 7598 caused a significantly higher cumulative mortality of 55.64 ± 2.32 % at 1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml than the 43.1 ± 2.89 % recorded with PPRI 7861. Additionally, a significantly higher level of overt mycosis was recorded with PPRI 7598 (61.63 ± 1.66 %) in comparison with PPRI 7861 (52.06 ± 2.81 %), both at higher concentrations. The interaction between time (days) and treatment was significant, with an increase in aphid mortality over time. The results suggest that the two tested strains were significantly more pathogenic to aphids at the higher concentration (1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml). In addition, these findings also direct our future research focus on exploration of PPRI 7598 against other cereal aphids, including oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi, and as endophyte for induced systemic resistance to insects and diseases.