We provide a comparison of bat activity levels recorded during long-term acoustic monitoring through 188 microphones at pre-construction wind energy facility (WEF) sites in 12 South African ecoregions, and discuss the implications of the results for wind energy development. We summed all bat passes and detector hours over microphones, sites and years for each month, and fitted a negative binomial regression model with total bat passes as the response and ecoregion as the predictor. Overall, there was a significant effect of ecoregion on the number of bat passes per detector hour recorded near ground level, and in the turbine rotor sweep. Pairwise comparisons revealed that the sites in Maputaland coastal forests and woodlands, and KwaZulu-Natal-Cape coastal forests, were most distinct due to exceptionally high levels of recorded activity. As such, we strongly advise against WEF development in these ecoregions. In lowland fynbos and renosterveld, Limpopo lowveld, and Albany thickets, where intermediate to high bat activity was recorded, we recommend that the conditions of WEF-authorizations must include rigorous bat impact mitigation measures. For operational WEFs, our results provided valuable benchmark information for devising bat fatality thresholds that reflect the variation in bat activity across South Africa's diverse landscape.

Two improvements on the automated image recognition of individual leopards (Panthera pardus) are presented. Firstly, a new method of automated segmentation on images, with a guaranteed side view of the animal, allows for a region of interest to be calculated automatically, reducing the manual effort of the image processing substantially. Secondly, improvements on the automated recognition of citizen science images with extreme viewpoints are detailed.

Interspecific competition among terrestrial carnivores can have widespread impacts on community structure and can ultimately determine which species are able to coexist. Within the carnivore guild, coexistence can be achieved through either spatial, temporal or dietary partitioning. The most effective method of avoiding competition may be spatial partitioning, as it removes the potential for negative interactions. The ways in which large carnivore species utilize and partition space in small, enclosed reserves in South Africa is currently poorly understood. This knowledge gap weakens our understanding of which mechanisms structure large carnivore communities in these systems. Thus, our aim was to use Global Positioning System (GPS) collars to investigate the spatial dynamics of large carnivores [four lions (Panthera leo), three leopards (Panthera pardus) and three spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta)] on a small, enclosed reserve (Selati Game Reserve). Regarding home ranges, lions had considerable overlap among themselves (especially the females), leopards had minimal overlap, while spotted hyaenas had no home range overlap. Although we found no evidence for spatial partitioning amongst the collared large carnivores, differences in the habitat use patterns of the three large carnivore species is evident. The high prey abundance of Selati, carnivore predation strategies, behavioural adaptations and ecological separation could be facilitating the coexistence of lions, spotted hyaenas and leopards in Selati. We encourage future research to be aimed at investigating the interactions of multiple sympatric carnivores in an attempt to bridge the knowledge gap on which mechanisms structure carnivore communities.

The impact of global wildlife trafficking on biological diversity imposes pressures on authorities to respond. Reliable estimates of population sizes of keystone species such as rhinoceroses (rhinos) are often a key requirement to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions. Black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis ) are cryptic and targeted by poachers for their horns. Several interventions aim to curb the effects of poaching and achieve black rhino conservation targets in the short to medium term. We used black rhinos to evaluate the survey requirements that will allow the detection of 1% annual change in population size over a five-year period, a key short-term target for black rhinos in Kruger National Park, South Africa. We found that a mark-recapture technique provided the most precise estimates, but authorities need to mark 94% of all black rhinos. This is logistically challenging and costly. Development of inclusive conservation plans need to consider realistic measures to report outcomes and achieve effective conservation evaluation.

Understanding the environmental drivers that influence the spatial distribution of wildlife is paramount to the conservation of endangered carnivore species. However, presence data on most carnivore species (e.g. cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus) are not readily available to assist conservation efforts. In this study, we used MaxEnt to tease out the key determinants of the spatial distribution of cheetahs using presence-only data of cheetah against five environmental variables, i.e. distance to water (a proxy for prey density), elevation, slope, terrain ruggedness, and soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI; a proxy for vegetation quality and condition). Our MaxEnt model was successful (AUC = 0.98) in predicting the potential distribution of cheetahs in Gonarezhou National Park. We observed that amongst the five environmental variables, elevation and distance to water contributed most (88%) to the potential distribution of cheetahs. The contribution of SAVI, slope and terrain ruggedness (12%) was negligible. We also estimated that the potential predicted habitat of cheetahs was 2572.9 km² (51.2% of Gonarezhou National Park). In addition to providing baseline information, these findings are both novel and specific to Gonarezhou National Park, and provide important insights into cheetah conservation and management.

Across southern Africa, many populations of the highly-mobile common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) are limited to small, fenced protected areas. We studied such a population at Kgaswane Mountain Reserve (KMR), South Africa, using radio-collared animals to better understand eland range use in a landscape with restricted movement. Placement of home ranges within the reserve changed from favouring woodland to dry grassland after the beginning of the wet season, while wet grassland was favoured all year. Habitat use within home ranges indicated an interaction between vegetation types and elevation that changed with season: low-elevation selection for dry grassland, open shrubland and woodland changed to selection for wet and dry grassland; high-elevation selection for open shrubland alone changed to selection for both open shrubland and woodland. Despite the fenced nature of KMR, eland appeared to have sufficiently flexible behaviour to follow landscape use and seasonal home range changes demonstrated by eland in less restrictive environments. Management activities that promote fine-scale heterogeneity and varying levels of woody cover might compensate for lack of mobility where fences limit broad-scale movements.

Nationwide aerial animal censuses of Botswana between 1992 and 2012, conducted by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, have highlighted a 71% decline in the national springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) population and a contraction of their range. The reasons for this decline remain unknown. We investigated possible drivers of this decline in the southern Kalahari of Botswana. We assessed springbok resource selection levels, movement behaviour and seasonal and spatial effects on the juvenile:adult female ratio. Springbok displayed high levels of forage and habitat selection. Their dependency on pan habitats renders their distribution predictable, which could expose them to high levels of predation and poaching. Springbok moved shorter daily distances during the hot dry and longer distances during wet seasons. High temperatures during the hot dry season could limit movement and prevent exploitation of spatially and temporally heterogeneous resources. We recorded a ratio of 0.37 juvenile:1 adult female in the wet season months followed by a ratio decline to 0.10:1 in the subsequent cold dry season, indicating a low recruitment rate that could be contributing to the springbok population decline. Environmental changes and anthropogenic disturbances, exacerbated by climate change, will likely exert a negative influence on selective foragers like springbok.

We explored the perceptions held by subsistence farmers (living in communal lands within the CAMPFIRE programme area in northwestern Zimbabwe) towards the African lion (Panthera leo) and related conservation interventions undertaken by management authorities. Conceptually guided by the cognitive hierarchy, we used a semi-structured, face-to-face interview format to collect data across three different farming communities bordering Hwange and Zambezi National Parks. Ordinal regression models were used to analyse the data. Our results illustrate that farmers' perceptions towards lions were strongly negative and appeared to be associated with the geographic location in which the farmer lived, as well as the farmer's ethnic group. We also found that perceptions towards lions were not associated with specific livestock losses or to the potential benefits farmers received from wildlife conservation, e.g. school classroom blocks or road improvements. Instead, we suggest that fear of lions and perceived risk to livestock or human wellbeing may play a stronger role in shaping farmers' perceptions compared to actual livestock losses. Moreover, we suggest that sharing information across farmer social networks within a community area, along with the potential for media attention over sensational events, may also influence perceptions towards lions. Our results contribute a baseline dataset for future applied research in this area, and provide insight into developing locally-meaningful conservation interventions, including the type of information to be shared, channels for communication, and the benefits derived from participating in wildlife conservation.

In fenced protected areas with limited opportunities to disperse, resources and constraints vary in space and time, affecting herbivore behaviour. The distribution, availability and quality of resources, burnt areas, and potential inter-specific competition all play a role in sustaining populations of large sympatric African herbivores. We investigated the role of resources, constraints and interspecific relationships on habitat use by three ruminants – black and blue wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou, C. taurinus) and red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), and a non-ruminant, plains zebra (Equus quagga), across seasons and in different landscape types in a South African reserve. Black wildebeest, blue wildebeest and red hartebeest preferred the open grassland landscape, with homogeneous vegetation, while zebra favoured the wooded grassland landscape, with more heterogeneous vegetation. Burnt areas and vegetation greenness were important for all species, while elevation represented a constraint for black wildebeest only. The presence/absence of other species was important in shaping landscape use for black and blue wildebeest, and this suggests the possibility of competition. Our findings confirm the importance of heterogeneity and, in particular, the important role of a planned burning regime in maintaining such heterogeneity to sustain multi-species herbivore assemblages in small fenced nature reserves, where competition might arise between species using similar resources.

Both interference and exploitative competition for prey occurs between carnivore species, which can be exacerbated if the carnivore species are of similar body size, meaning that they select for similar prey species. Studies on competition within the large carnivore guild in Africa have mainly focused on the interactions between the larger dominant (lions, Panthera leo, and spotted hyaenas, Crocuta crocuta) and smaller, submissive (cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, and African wild dogs, Lycoan pictus) species. However, given that cheetahs and African wild dogs are similar-sized and diurnal, they have a high overlap in dietary preference and hence scope for competition. Here, we investigate whether competition with African wild dogs shapes cheetah prey preference by comparing cheetah prey selection before and after reintroductions of African wild dogs. We show that cheetahs experienced high dietary overlap with African wild dogs but become more generalized hunters in the presence of African wild dogs. Moreover, cheetahs used three key prey species (impala, Aepyceros melampus, nyala, Tragelaphus angasii, and common duiker, Sylvicapra grimmia) differently following African wild dog reintroductions. We suggest that this reflects predominantly exploitative competition between these predators, particularly for impala. Such diet shifts may be useful indicators of resource limitations for managers conserving these two threatened small predators.

In contrast to other game species and domestic livestock, there is a paucity of evidence concerning yields and thus meat obtained from the African savanna buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer ). The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of age (categorized) and sex on buffalo carcass yields. Towards this goal, male (n = 17) and female (n = 13), and adult (n = 23) and subadult (n = 7) buffaloes were slaughtered, and the weight of the carcass and various organs/offal and six major muscles [(biceps femoris (BF), semimembranosus (SM), semitendinosus (ST), longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL), infraspinatus (IS) and supraspinatus (SS)] determined. Buffaloes had a high dressing percentage, calculated from the warm carcass weight, and with the heaviest muscle weights measured for the BF, SM and LTL muscles. Adults had heavier muscle weights than subadults, and all parameters except the heart and IS muscle weight differed significantly between these age groups. In addition, the skin and head weight differed significantly between males and females. In summary, African savanna buffalo yields (∼58%) compared favourably to other domestic animals, with the heavy weight of valuable muscles suggesting their commercial potential as a high-end value-added product.

The ecological functioning of an environment is influenced by how lions, Panthera leo, utilize their prey at various spatial and temporal scales. Aspects of the spatial and temporal variation in lion diet were investigated in the southwestern Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) between May 2013 and June 2015 using evidence of prey remains identified through GPS cluster analysis (n = 278) and lion scat analysis (n = 189). Spatial variation in diet was investigated between three regional landscape types (north, south and west), based on the different vegetation types represented within each area, and two terrain types (riverbeds and dunes). Seasonal variations were assessed according to the hot-wet season (November to April), and cold-dry season (May to October). Lion diet profiles varied between landscape types and terrain type, but not seasonally. The most notable spatial differences in lion diet profiles were between the dune and riverbed terrains. Blue wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus, contributed significantly to lion diet in the riverbeds (36%), but not in the dunes (2%). Gemsbok, Oryx gazella, was the primary contributor to lion intake biomass across all seasons, landscape types, as well as in the dune terrain (range 55–82%). Being largely independent of surface water and the most widespread and abundant of the large prey species, gemsbok are expected to remain the primary food source for lions and are likely to be a key driver of lion population dynamics in the KTP.

Human–wildlife conflict in unprotected areas, especially those bordering reserves, has resulted in the global home range and population size reduction of naturally occurring wildlife. Simultaneously, rural communities and commercial farmlands at the interface of human development and natural habitat face severe threats to their livelihoods and agricultural security, often resulting in the vast eradication of real or perceived damage-causing animals (DCAs). The knowledge of local people was relied on to elucidate the dynamic and interwoven social, economic and ecological factors giving rise to the largely undocumented conflict between landowners and wildlife adjacent to the Boland Mountain Complex, South Africa. Subsequently, the spatial location of observed and expected zones of species-specific risk on a regional level was anticipated and mapped using a maximum entropy algorithm. The highest level of tolerance by farmers was shown for primates and ungulates, while tolerance for carnivores, avifauna and invasive or feral species were comparatively lower. The results presented in this manuscript will enable the prioritization of locations and species to create improved mitigation and management plans. It will furthermore provide for more accurate allocation of conservation resources to minimize conflicts, optimize agricultural yield, reduce wildlife off-take, and ultimately ameliorate human–wildlife conflict.

Anthropogenic disturbance and increased environmental degradation often lead to losses in species diversity. As continuous forests become increasingly limited, it is important to determine conservation and biodiversity values of intact forests and surrounding landscapes. Currently, there is little data on how anuran communities react to the alarming growth of habitat degradation in tropical East Africa, nor on the value of remnant forests. This study evaluated the alpha, beta and gamma diversity of frogs in an altered landscape on Mount Mulanje, Malawi, East Africa, and assessed the impact of habitat degradation and diversity of a landscape matrix of various habitat types. Nine sites were sampled: three intact miombo forests, three eucalyptus plantations, and three secondary forests. Twenty-nine species were found throughout these landscapes. Intact miombo forests contained significantly more frog species than the other habitats. The degree of canopy cover and area size appeared to determine species diversity across all three landscapes. Although eucalyptus plantations were impoverished, naturally regenerating secondary forests can help relieve the effects of habitat alteration. Nevertheless, degraded habitats cannot substitute for continuous blocks of forest; therefore understanding these differences is crucial for maintaining the biodiversity value in the long term.

South Africa is one of only seven countries with a viable population of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). The national population in 2017 was 372 adults and yearlings and comprised three subpopulations: 1) Kruger National Park (Kruger), 2) an intensively managed metapopulation established through reintroductions into isolated, fenced reserves, and 3) a free-roaming population that occurs naturally outside protected areas. We assessed the long-term (four wild dog generations, ∼20 years) trends in population size and growth rate within each of these three subpopulations. We found that Kruger supports a substantial population, which has declined over time. The metapopulation is the only subpopulation that has increased significantly over time (both in population size and number of packs), likely due to intensive conservation efforts and the reintroduction of wild dogs into 15 additional reserves since 1998. The free-roaming subpopulation has remained small but stable, even though the number of packs has declined due to anthropogenic threats. The overall national population has remained stable even though the number of packs has increased. Kruger has consistently supported the highest proportion of the national population over the last two decades. However, the contribution of the metapopulation has increased significantly over time. It is clear that despite differences in survey effort among the three subpopulations, South Africa has a small (∼500) but stable population of wild dogs, with the metapopulation contribution becoming increasingly important. The circumstances in the country necessitate, and demonstrate the benefit of, intensive, adaptive management for the national population of wild dogs. While this assessment provides baseline information for the three subpopulations, wild dog conservation in South Africa would benefit greatly from equal survey effort and standardized methods to accurately assess long-term population trends.

Rhinoceros poaching has been recognized the world over as a conservation crisis, the result of the high price of horn and demand in Asian markets. The commitment and participation of local people in conservation activities, however, are crucial for conservation success. Here we assess attitudes and perceptions towards rhino poaching and conservation in light of surveys in two local communities adjacent to the Hlane Royal National Park in eSwatini where perhaps 100 black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhino occur. Our survey of 60 households addressed perceptions and attitudes towards rhino conservation and willingness to participate in rhino poaching and conservation activities. No efforts have been made to involve local people in conservation activities, and the people do not benefit from the park's activities. About 20% of respondents expressed their willingness to help rhino poachers provided they are paid for their services. Of the remaining 80%, some mentioned that they would not help poachers for fear of being apprehended. Still, some mentioned that they would not help poachers because of their concern about poaching and believe its prevention is important. Park authorities here and elsewhere could invest in building better people–park relationships, and provide opportunities for local communities to participate in conservation activities. Conservation policies to co-manage the resources could be used to deter poaching and to conserve wildlife involving local community members in monitoring and enforcement strategies.

Reports of a mass die-off of ∼350 elephants (Loxodonta africana) in northern Botswana over a period of two months (May–June 2020), has fuelled speculation and concern regarding the cause. Although the area in which these mortalities occurred is not protected and is considered a hotspot for human–elephant conflict and poaching, both malicious poisoning and poaching are unlikely to have played a role as other species were not affected, and elephant carcasses were found with tusks intact. In the absence of a confirmed cause we sought to identify the lines of enquiry that are most likely to lead to a definitive answer. In particular, we consider viral and bacterial agents that could precipitate species-specific mortalities on this scale, potential environmental sources of poisoning and the samples and tests that would assist in excluding/ confirming these candidate causes. Whilst it may be argued that these mortalities are unlikely to negatively impact the broader elephant population of ∼130 000 individuals in Botswana, the same cannot be said of the many vulnerable population pockets in other parts of Africa. For this reason, it is essential that the cause of the current die-off is identified as it is the only way to prevent similar losses of susceptible elephants elsewhere.