We investigated the circadian activity rhythm in the little-studied Wagner's gerbil (Gerbillus dasyurus) from the Raydah Protected Area, southwestern Saudi Arabia. In order to assess whether these animals possess an endogenous rhythm of locomotor activity that entrains to the light:dark cycle, they were subjected to three distinct light cycles: an LD cycle (12 h light/12 h dark), a DD cycle (constant darkness) and a DL light cycle (an inverse of the LD light cycle). All eight individuals studied exhibited entrainment of their activity to the light cycles. Under LD, the total percentage of activity during the dark phase was 93.7 ± 1.8%. Activity was distributed throughout the night (mean peak activity 22:46 ± 0:14). All eight animals expressed distinct endogenous free-running rhythms of locomotor activity (mean τ = 23:55 ± 0:36). During constant darkness, animals still displayed more activity during the subjective night (75.6 ± 0.4%). Under the DL light cycle, the total percentage of activity was 92.7 ± 1.8% during the dark phase. In conclusion, the daily locomotor activity rhythm of Wagner's gerbil is strongly entrained by the light:dark cycle with the most activity concentrated during the night and consequently this desert-dwelling mammal may thus be considered truly nocturnal.

The freshwater habitats (mires, streams, lakes, pools and wallows) on sub-Antarctic Marion Island were examined for invertebrates. Sixty-eight species were found, including 45 new records for the Island. Of these 56 were bona fide aquatic invertebrates, the rest being terrestrial or brackish interlopers that had fallen or been blown into the water. The aquatic species include five platyhelminthes, a gastrotrich, three tardigrades, 28 rotifers, six nematodes, two annelids and 11 arthropods. Most are familiar species that have been recorded on other sub-Antarctic islands. The invertebrate faunas of the various freshwater habitats were basically similar in species composition, with the abundances of particular species dependent upon the water body's size, distance from the sea and degree of eutrophication resulting from seal and seabird manuring.

Specimens of Labeo capensis (n = 13) and Labeo umbratus (n = 26) from the Vaal Dam (South Africa) were collected and examined for gill and skin monogenean parasites. Three new Dactylogyrus and one new Dogielius species are described. Dactylogyrus iwani n.sp. (longer inner root on anchor and predominates onL. capensis) and D. larindae n.sp. (shorter inner root on anchor and predominates on L. umbratus) show similarities in male copulatory organ (MCO) and anchor structure with representatives of the D. pseudanchoratus group. Dactylogyrus nicolettae n.sp. differs completely with regard to anchor morphology (stout with a curved inner root and reduced outer root), yet MCO morphology (curved penis and simple accessory piece structure of similar shape and size) are similar in all three species described. Dogielius intorquens n.sp. was collected from both hosts. Two forms, corresponding to host species and differing in anchor and MCO size but not shape, are described. This brings the number of Dactylogyrus species described from African Labeo spp. to 29, with D. intorquens n.sp. constituting the 16th Dogielius species from African Labeo spp. hosts.

The larval fish assemblage was studied in the permanently open Sundays Estuary on the southeast coast of South Africa. Seasonal samples were collected between winter 2007 and autumn 2009 at eight sites along the estuary by means of boat-based plankton tows using two modified Working Party 2 (WP2) nets. Salinity ranged from 1.5–36.5 and temperature from 11.6–26.8°C during the study period. A total of 8174 larval and early juvenile fishes were caught, representing 12 families and 23 taxa. The Clupeidae, Gobiidae and Blenniidae were the numerically dominant fish families. Common species included Gilchristella aestuarias (Clupeidae), Omobranchus woodi (Blenniidae), Caffrogobius gilchristi, Glossogobius callidus (Gobiidae), Liza dumerilii and Myxus capensis (Mugilidae), largely reflecting the adult assemblage of the estuary. Catches varied significantly between seasons, but not between sites and salinity zones within the estuary. Highest catches were recorded in summer (mean of 464 and 928 larvae per 100 m³ in 2008 and 2009, respectively). Species diversity also varied seasonally, with highest diversity occurring during summer. Highest larval fish density occurred in the euhaline zone while the oligohaline zone supported the highest diversity. Estuarine-resident species (category I) dominated the system (91%). The preflexion stage of development dominated the catches suggesting a high degree of local production in the Sundays Estuary. Larval sizes of the estuarine-resident G. aestuarias and catadromous species M. capensis tended to increase towards the middle and upper reaches of the estuary. Important variables regulating larval fish dynamics in the Sundays Estuary included salinity, temperature and turbidity.

Disturbance has been offered as an explanatory mechanism in structuring the variation of species across a landscape. In this study, we investigated the effect of the impact by Kolomela Iron Mine on the variation of species occurring in temporary pans. Using a novel null model approach to partitioning two sets of data (from before and after the establishment of the mine) into independent alpha (α) and beta (β) components, we determined that the mining practices have had little to no impact on the invertebrate diversity. This suggests that these communities were more resilient than previously assumed. The results were, however, confounded by the fact that the resting eggs of pan inhabitants could remain dormant in the sediment for decades; suggesting that observed diversity patterns were possibly remnants of unknown past events. To ensure that the effects of present-day impacts are assessed, continuous monitoring is recommended. Similarly, the preservation of conservation areas and a landscape wide management system were proposed to ensure that large-scale ecological process are not jeopardized by the gradual fragmentation of the pan metacommunity.

Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease, prevalent all over the world and has a significant impact on poultry production. The current study aimed to investigate the metabolic change as well as the hepatic inflammatory response caused by Eimeria papillata infection. Female Balb/c mice were orally infected with 10³ sporulated oocysts of E. papillata. Plasma levels of alanine (ALT) and aspartate (AST) aminotransferases, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), γ-glutamyl transferase (γ GT), total bilirubin, cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose were assessed, and liver tissue sections were examined under a microscope. The level of CYP3A11, CYP7A1, UGT1A1, and SULT2A1 were determined using quantitative real-time PCR. The data showed that infection of mice with E. papillata induced metabolic disturbance, inflammation and injury of the liver. This was evidenced (i) as increases in inflammatory cellular infiltrations, dilated sinusoids, and vacuolated hepatocytes, (ii) as increased plasma levels of ALT, AST, ALP, γ GT, total bilirubin, cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose, (iii) as decreased mRNA expression of CYP3A11, UGT1A1, and SULT2A1, respectively and (iv) as increased mRNA level of CYP7A1. The data provide evidence that E. papillata parasites are able to induce a metabolic disturbances and hepatic tissue injury. Investigation of the expression profile of CYP, UGT and SULT genes in the hepatic tissues may help elucidate the underlying mechanism for regulation of the transcription of genes in the process of pathogenesis.

Little is known about the levels of stress experienced by African buffalos affected by injury, disease, or socio-ecological and anthropogenic factors. To be able to start filling this gap, we examined the suitability of two 11-oxoaetiocholanolone enzyme-immunoassays (EIAs) detecting 11,17 dioxoandrostanes (11,17-DOA) as well as faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs) with a 5β-3α-ol-11-one structure (3α,11oxo-CM), respectively, for monitoring stress-related physiological responses in African buffalo. An adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) challenge in one male and one female housed at Mokopane Biodiversity Conservation Centre, South Africa, showed a threefold increase in circulating Cortisol levels in a sample taken 40 min post-injection. Corresponding 11,17-DOA levels increased tenfold (female) and 15-fold (male) above baseline, and 3α,11oxo-CM concentrations increased ninefold (female) and 12-fold (male) above pre-injection levels, indicating that both EIAs are suitable for measuring FGMs in African buffalo.In addition, 11,17-DOA levels monitored during the adaptation process of individual housing revealed an up to 14-fold elevation in FGMs. Storage of faeces at ambient temperature for up to 16 h post-defecation resulted in an significant increase in 11,17-DOA levels 2 h after defecation. Finally, higher individual baseline 11,17-DOA concentrations were found in samples defecated overnight, indicating a possible diurnal effect in excretion of FGMs in African buffalo.

Optimal escape theory predicts that escape behaviour of an organism is best understood in terms of costs and benefits of escaping relative to risk of predation. However, risk of predation facing an organism is dependent on various biotic and abiotic factors. In order to better understand escape behaviour of an African snake, the Namaqua dwarf adder (Bitis schneideri), I simulated predatory attacks on 51 free-ranging snakes, quantifying whether or not they fled. Additionally I measured body size, sex, body condition, and the surface temperature of the location of each snake, as well as the situation (buried or active on the surface) of the snake. I used generalized logistic regression to assess which variables predicted whether the snake fled during/following the simulated attack or not. Surface temperature was significantly associated with a flight-response, with warmer snakes more likely to flee than cooler snakes. Buried snakes were less likely to flee than snakes that were active on the surface. These findings generally support optimal escape theory in that both factors are strongly linked to risk of predation: temperature is likely to influence sprint performance, while situation is likely to influence the detectability of the snake to predators.

In three mixed samples (mosses and leaf litter) collected in Zambia (southern Africa), forty-three specimens and six eggs of eutardigrades were found. Among them, 29 specimens belonged to a new species of the family Isohypsibiidae, Doryphoribius niedbalai n.sp. The new species belongs to the Doryphoribius evelinae group and it differs from other members of the group mainly by a different number and configuration of dorsal gibbosities, as well as by some morphometric characters. Apart from the new species, the examined material contained also two rare African eutardigrades: Milnesium tetralamellatum and Calcarobiotus (Calcarobiotus) parvicalcar. These species are recorded for the first time outside their type localities. Additionally, Paramacrobiotus vanescens is recorded for the fourth time from Africa. In this paper, together with the description of the new species, first ever photomicrographs of Milnesium tetralamellatum and Paramacrobiotus vanescens are also provided. This is the first account of the phylum Tardigrada from Zambia.

Our recent phylogeographic study on the strictly savanna small rodent Nannomys minutoides revealed an unexpected pattern of divergence between populations occupying neighbouring savanna islands in Central Gabon, suggesting the historical and continuing fragmentation of these savanna habitats. In this study, we test this hypothesis using comparative phylogeography with another species of savanna rodent, Lemnhcomys striatus, using nested clade analysis (NCA) on cytochrome b sequences of 53 individuals, particularly checking for vicariance patterns in the Lopé National Park region. Lemniscomys striatus is characterized by a local structured pattern similar to that of N. minutoides. These new results further support the scenario of historical and ongoing fragmentation of the local savanna landscape which commenced in the upper Pleistocene, despite the repetitive savanna expansion episodes as documented by the landscape history. Geographic barriers most likely comprising forested areas, which prevent the mixing of local savanna rodent populations, must have persisted in this region. The presence of these barriers could not have been inferred from global paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental analyses alone.

The greater padloper, Homopus femoralis, is largely endemic to South Africa. Its ecology remains unstudied, yet the efficient planning of field research is complicated by lack of data on its activity patterns. I studied a population in spring, summer and autumn 2008–2011, and found that H. femoralis was active (i.e. basking, drinking, feeding or walking) only during brief intervals following rainfall or imminent rain, perhaps to avoid avian predators or physiological costs of water and food shortages. Future studies might locate active tortoises in the highest rainfall months, and use telemetry to identify activity patterns throughout the year.

Social behaviour has been implicated in the natal dispersal of several small mammal species. We studied social interactions within groups of bushveld gerbil Gerbillhcus leucogaster mothers and their weaned offspring in captivity. We examined groups (n = 8) over several weeks to assess whether mothers and juveniles tolerate one another beyond weaning, and to investigate behavioural influences surrounding the onset of dispersal. Each group was placed in a series of interconnecting tanks, allowing juveniles free movement between tanks but restricting the movement of the mother. In two of the eight groups the mother produced a second litter during the study; mothers in these two groups appeared to be less tolerant of their first litter compared to mothers in the remaining groups. The remaining groups showed very high levels of tolerance throughout the study, both between mothers and their offspring, and between siblings. Juveniles began showing independence from the mother around weaning, but although independent behaviour increased with juvenile age, there was no clear breakdown of the mother—offspring bond. In nature, offspring probably disperse passively at around five to six weeks old if no subsequent litter is born. However, the high tolerance within these groups suggests that dispersal could be delayed under particular circumstances.

The greater cane rat is a recently domesticated monogastric herbivore, and the importance of the caecum in the functioning of its digestive tract has frequently been mentioned. However, no data are available on caecal fermentative activity of this animal and research on the digestive physiology was only performed in adult animals. The present work was initiated to describe some parameters of the digestive tract anatomy and to study caecal fermentation of the growing cane rat. Thirty 40-day-old weaned cane rats were used in this experiment. Six of them were immediately euthanased and 12 were housed in a collective pen for gastrointestinal tract (GIT) parameters measurements. Twelve others were kept in individual cages to record growth and food intake. Captive cane rats received a pelleted diet containing 12.5% of crude protein and 16.7% of lignocellulose. Six of the 12 collectively housed animals were euthanased on day 82 and a further six on day 103. The growth rate increased with age (P < 0.01) with a linear growth curve (P < 0.001) while the feed intake (g/kg body weight) did not vary (P > 0.05). The caecum represented the largest compartment of the digestive tract constituting more than 40% of total GIT contents. Acetate was the most abundant short-chain fatty acid with more than 70% of the total, followed by propionate (less than 25%) and butyrate (around 5%). Short-chain fatty acid profiles varied with age: when age increased, the acetate proportion increased (P < 0.01), the propionate proportion decreased (P < 0.001) and the butyrate proportion remained unchanged (P > 0.05). The propionate/butyrate ratio showed a decrease with an increase in age (P = 0.05). Ammonia concentrations did not vary with age (P > 0.05). It is concluded that the caecum is an important site of fermentation in the growing cane rat.

The fruit bat Epomophorus wahlbergi is abundant in the eastern parts of southern Africa, but its breeding biology remains poorly documented. This study aimed to ascertain the breeding season of this species in northeastern Swaziland where 340 individuals were netted over a 21-month period. Subadults were present throughout the year with two peaks, while lactating females were only present between December and May. These contradictory data are consistent with a bimodal birth peak, and the fact that pregnancy and lactation were both difficult to detect in the field.

The trematode Paraconcinnum leirsi n.sp. (Dicrocoeliidae) is described from two rodent species, the African gerbil, Gerbilliscus vicinus, and the spiny mouse, Acomys spinosissimus, from Tanzania. It differs from the description of P. hylomisci found in the Stella wood mouse, Hylomyscus Stella, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Molecular studies were performed by sequencing the near complete 18S rDNA gene of the fluke to assess its phylogenetic position within the Dicrocoeliidae. The resulting estimate of evolutionary divergence between the fluke and other dicrocoeliids was 1.60 ± 0.22% base differences per site. The phylogenetic analysis shows that the fluke is a new species within Dicrocoeliidae falling in a cluster with the genera Corrigia, Lyperosomum, Concinnum and Eurytrema although phylogenetic relationships among these genera are not well resolved. This is the first dicrocoeliid reported from rodents in eastern Africa.

Most polygynous male mammals exhibit little or no parental care or involvement raising young. Instead, they invest indirectly in their own morphological and physiological attributes which enhance their chance of reproduction. Such secondary morphological sex traits may contribute to differences in the burrow architecture of fossorial mammals, such as the Cape dune mole-rat, Bathyergus suillus. Indeed, little is known about the seasonal changes in burrow architecture or differences in burrow configuration may differ between the sexes of subterranean African mole-rats (Bathyergidae). We excavated burrow systems of male and female B. suillus during the summer and the winter to investigate whether male burrow architecture reflected putative mate-seeking behaviour. We consider burrow geometry in response to mating strategies. Male burrow systems explored the environment more efficiently than females. This is presumably because of the increase in associated energetic costs of being a large male. Males produce more mounds indicating territorial behaviour even when it is energetically costly to dispose of soil onto the surface when the soil is less friable during the summer. Overall tunnel dimensions did not differ between the sexes. It appears that a change in season does not affect the geometry of the burrow system or tunnel dimensions in a climatically buffered environment.

The Cape Verdean islands form a distinct aquatic freshwater ecoregion characterized mainly by temporal water bodies with an adapted invertebrate community. Freshwater fish were not previously recorded from the archipelago. During a non-exhaustive survey of freshwater bodies on five islands of the archipelago, the first presence of a freshwater fish was recorded. Using barcoding sequences, the species was identified as the guppy (Poecilia reticulata), a highly invasive species alien to the Cape Verdean Islands.

The confusion among some speakers of isiXhosa concerning the meaning of ingwe can probably be traced to John Ayliff's dictionary of the language published in 1846. There he gives ‘tiger’ as ingwe and ‘leopard’ as ihlozi. He clearly treats the two as distinct species. This is contrary to South African usage in English and Afrikaans in which tiger/tier is an alternative name for leopard/luiperd. The confusion does not appear in twelve other languages in which ingwe (or a cognate) means leopard in southern Africa, and not another species.

Frugivores feed on fruits and nectars that contain different types of sugars in different proportions, which provide these animals with energy. Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bat (Epomophorus wahlbergi) has a high glucose intake irrespective of sugar concentration of nectar. It is not known how these bats regulate their blood plasma glucose concentrations in order to avoid the negative effects associated with hyperglycemia. Fruit bats have a high amount of sugar intake in a short period of time which could cause a glucose challenge and it is therefore necessary to determine whether these bats are able to regulate their blood plasma glucose concentrations within normal concentrations. This study investigated the diel variations in blood plasma glucose concentrations of E. wahlbergi. Epomophorus wahlbergi's blood plasma glucose concentration was lower (5.24 ±0.38 mmol/1) at 18:00 before feeding and increased during/after feeding (8.19 ± 1.24 mmol/1) but bats appeared to regulate it within limits. Their range in concentrations was higher than the normal mammalian blood plasma glucose concentrations range. Consequently these bats appear to regulate their blood plasma glucose concentration, although at a range higher than normal mammalian levels, and thus reduce the negative consequences associated with hyperglycemia.

This Short communication, as well as the Letters to the Editor (African Zoology 49(1): 1–4, 2014) that refer to it, have been retracted by the Editors-in-Chief and neither the electronic nor the print version of the article or the letters should be cited.

The suitability of scales for ageing Micropterus salmoides was determined by comparing the precision of growth zone counts on scales with those obtained from sectioned sagittal otoliths from a sample of 496 fish collected from Wriggleswade and Mankazana Impoundments in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Otoliths (1.4% rejected) were more readable than scales (41.7% and 7.5% rejected) for Wriggleswade and Mankazana Impoundments respectively. Otolith readings were more precise (average percentage error (APE) = 13.6%; coefficient of variation (CV) = 15.8%) than scales (APE = 18.0%; CV = 21.9%) for the total sample. Growth zone counts between structures were not symmetrically distributed around the agreed ages (otolith age = scale age) of the fish from Wriggleswade Impoundment (Bowker's test H²: χ²= 136, d.f. = 27, P < 0.05) and graphical comparison showed that scales tended to underestimate age, particularly for fish older than five years. Scales are therefore not suitable structures for ageing South African M. salmoides which may attain ages of up to 13 years.

Little is known about gastrointestinal parasite infections in large carnivores in Africa and what is available is largely from East Africa. We collected faecal samples from nine spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta), 15 lions (Panthera leo) and 13 African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) from Luangwa Valley, Zambia. The most common gastrointestinal parasites found were Isospora spp., Spirometra sp., Taeniidae and Sarcosystis spp. Twenty-eight per cent of all samples were co-infected with Spirometra sp. and Taeniidae, with co-infection rates highest among lions (67%). Thirty-three per cent (3/9) of spotted hyaenas were infected with Isospora sp. Ninety-two per cent (12/13) of wild dog were infected with Sarcocystis, similar to results from studies in South Africa. One lion was infected with a parasite whose morphology suggested Strongyloides sp., not previously been reported in lions. Samples from one lion and two spotted hyaenas yielded no gastrointestinal parasites. Overall, parasite species were consistent with those found from studies in other regions of Africa and are likely a result of ingesting infected prey. To our knowledge this study provides the most comprehensive survey of gastrointestinal parasite infection in large carnivores from this region of Africa to date and provides baseline data for future studies.

A new species, Eimeria mauritiensis (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) is reported from the pink pigeon, Nesoenas mayeri (Aves: Columbiformes) in Mauritius. Oocysts are sub-spherical 17.8 × 19.7 (16-19 × 1822) µm: Shape index (mean length/mean width) 1.1. A micropyle, oocyst residuum and polar granules are absent. Sporocysts are 6.6 × 12.0 (6-7 × 8-14) µm with Stieda and substieda bodies.