Many protected areas in Africa and elsewhere suffer from several external pressures making it difficult for management to set priorities. For example, aerial censuses show that many mammal populations in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem of western Tanzania are declining. Vehicle transect data collected from 1995 to 2011 and presented here confirm many of these declines within Katavi National Park itself. Two factors are believed to be adversely affecting large mammals in this national park: (i) reduced water flow caused by local damming of the Katuma River, for rice cultivation upstream of the park, and (ii) poaching. We used transect data, anti-poaching records and timing of dam emplacements to examine the importance of these factors for 23 species of mammalian herbivores and carnivores as well as two combinatorial measures of mammal species’ abundances. Controlling for rainfall, we found that the number of mammals counted per year was associated with both poaching and dams, the importance of which depended on the species. Both factors appear to be adversely affecting mammal populations in Katavi National Park and we make recommendations to both management and policy makers for tackling these problems. More generally, our study shows that wildlife managers of protected areas in the developing world can readily collect information on wildlife trends and basic ecology and can use them for conservation planning.

Crocidura goliath nimbasivanus Hutterer, 2003 (replacement name for C. odorata guineensis Heim de Balsac, 1968) from West Africa (Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast) and Crocidura goliath goliath Thomas, 1906 from Central Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo) were regarded as members of a single species until recently. A phylogenetic analysis including three mitochondrial (16S, cytb and COI) and one nuclear marker (BRCA) shows that C. g. nimbasilvanus is the sister taxon of C. nimbae, a species also endemic to West Africa. Crocidura g. goliath is part of the C. olivieri group and closely related to C. olivieri, C. viaria and C. fulvastra. Calculation of genetic distances between cytb sequences confirms this pattern (divergence of 13.5% between C. g. nimbasilvanus and C. g. goliath). An analysis of 112 skulls using morphometric geometrics provides evidence of marked shape differences between the two taxa. Despite close external morphological resemblances, we found diagnostic external and craniodental characters between these two forms. We therefore propose to treat C. nimbasilvanus and C. goliath as distinct species. Similar morphological features exhibited by these two African giant forest shrews, especially their large size, may be the result of homoplasy due to convergent evolutionary pressure. We also investigated the phenotypic diversification in size and skull shape within C. goliath and discovered strong intraspecific variability.

The residency and small-scale movements of early juveniles (<175 mm fork length) of three sparid fish species were examined in the shallow subtidal zone along a 500 m stretch of rocky coastline near Schoenmakerskop (Eastern Cape Province, South Africa). A total of 12 blacktail (Diplodus capensis), 12 zebra (Diplodus hottentotus) and six white musselcracker (Sparodon durbanensis) were tagged using visible implant elastomer (VIE) tags. Underwater observations in four shallow rocky subtidal gullies and adjacent areas were made using snorkelling gear on a total of 37 days spanning 13 field trips over spring low tide periods between January and August 2006. The VIE tagging method was well suited to individually tag small juvenile fish with minimum disturbance. In general, the degree of residency of juveniles in the shallow rocky subtidal zone was species specific and dependent on the size of individuals. Juvenile zebra displayed the highest degree of residency followed by white musselcracker and blacktail, with re-sightings recorded on 53%, 40% and 10% of observation days, respectively. The high degree of residency by early juvenile sparids renders them vulnerable to localized coastal perturbations and climate change.

Wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) are known to provide profitable foraging areas for insectivorous bats in Europe and the New World because of their association with high abundance of pollution-tolerant midges (Diptera). However, bats that feed on these insects may also accumulate metal pollutants such as cadmium and copper in their tissues, with acute or chronic effects on their health. Using a time expansion bat detector, the activity (number of passes and feeding buzzes) of Neoromicia nana (family Vespertilionidae) was quantified at three WWTW points - upstream, the point of wastewater effluent discharge, and downstream along three urban rivers in South Africa. In addition, metal concentrations in the kidney, liver and muscle tissue of N. nana caught at the sites were quantified. The diversity of aerial insects, sampled over the same period as the bat surveys, was measured using a black light trap and sweep-netting. Relative abundance and feeding activity of N. nana were higher at wastewater-polluted sites than at upstream sites. The most abundant insect order at wastewater-polluted sites and in the diet of resident bats was Diptera. Essential metals (copper, zinc and iron) were detected in all N. nana tissue samples, but the toxic metals cadmium, chromium and nickel were mostly present in tissue of bats at wastewater-polluted sites. Thus, although WWTWs provide an optimal food resource to bats in the short-term, it may pose serious long-term health risks for these top predators.

Naked mole-rats occur in large colonies where usually a single queen monopolizes reproduction. Queen succession occurs from within usually as a result of aggressive encounters with subordinate females that queue for reproductive succession following colony instability, which inevitably results in death of either the queen or the challenging conspecific. We monitored a queen succession following the death of the breeding male in a colony of the naked mole-rat, Heterocephalus glaber, prior to, during as well as after replacement of the original breeding female. The response of the pituitary luteotrophs was investigated in the non-reproductive females during this period of instability by the administration of endogenous gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) and evaluating the subsequent luteinising hormone (LH) response in the blood. Larger and older non-breeding females engaged in aggressive encounters that culminated in death. The new breeding successor which arose from within the colony was a large female who continued to procreate. The six non-breeding females that were killed during reproductive takeover were larger and older females which exhibited elevated basal circulating LH concentrations as well as increased pituitary sensitivity as measured by the amount of releasable LH to an exogenous GnRH challenge. By contrast, non-breeding females that survived the succession were smaller and younger animals with reduced basal and GnRH challenged LH concentrations. Likewise, five non-breeding males which were heavier and older than those non-breeding males which survived were killed. These animals did not, however, show elevated basal or exogenous GnRH challenged LH concentrations when compared to the surviving males. The non-breeding animals of both sexes which survived the reproductive takeover event represented individuals which posed a minimal threat to the new successor and hence promoted the continuation of the marked reproductive skew that is prevalent in this highly inbred colonial subterranean hystricomorph.

Polystoma channingi is described as a new species of polystomatid flatworm (Monogenea) parasitic in the urinary bladder of Cacosternum nanum in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. In a locality where C. nanum and C. boettgeri occur sympatrically the parasite has been found in both species. This finding of a Polystoma sp. in two closely related host species questions the strict host-specificity generally ascribed to the genus, but supports the hypothesis that host-specificity is determined by the oncomiracidium's ability to recognize the tadpole as a suitable host. This is the first polystome to be described from the genus Cacosternum and the ninth species of Polystoma from South Africa. The species is distinguished by its huge haptor and suckers relative to the body size. The haptor length/body length ratio of 0.38 is by far the largest for the known southern African polystomes. The prevalence of infection with P. channingi n.sp. was 25% for C. nanum and 40% for C. boettgeri, while the mean intensity of infections in adult frogs was 1.5 for C. boettgeri and 1.0 for C. nanum.

The leopard tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis) is the largest of southern Africa's 13 tortoise species, and occurs in a variety of habitats from arid and semi-arid areas to mesic grassveld, savanna and bushveld. Seasonal activity patterns of S. pardalis were investigated as a function of rainfall, sex, time of day, temperature and time after sunrise on farmland in the semi-arid Nama-Karoo, South Africa. We predicted that because of seasonal rainfall, and subsequent increase in the food available, activity patterns of leopard tortoises would vary greatly among seasons, but that the primary constraint on activity levels within a season would be ambient temperature. Type of activity, time of day that the activity was performed, and the frequency that each activity was performed, differed among seasons. There was no overall seasonal difference in the level of activity with sex, but in certain seasons and with regard to specific activities, there were significant differences between the sexes. Diel activity was primarily bimodal in summer and autumn, and unimodal in winter and spring, with nonthermoregulatory activities being performed primarily in the afternoon. There was a positive correlation between number of tortoises caught and rainfall per season, but activity levels and number of tortoises walking and feeding was not correlated with seasonal rainfall. Leopard tortoise activity behaviours responded to ambient temperature, but results indicate that activity is also initiated by the time since sunrise.

Baits or lures are commonly used for surveying small mammal communities, not only because they attract large numbers of these animals, but also because they provide sustenance for trapped individuals. In this study we used Sherman live traps with five bait treatments to sample small mammal populations at three high-altitude sites (>1700 m) in the Sneeuberg Mountain Complex of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. We investigated the influence of bait treatment on three parameters commonly recorded in small mammal surveys. In addition, we investigated how different bait treatments vary in measuring species richness using the Chao 2 species richness estimator together with rarefaction curves. Overall, 12 small mammal species were sampled. A combination of birdseed and banana captured the highest number of species (11) but the most successful bait overall was peanut butter and oats (greatest number of captures, recaptures, number of individuals and highest Shannon diversity). The Chao 2 richness estimator indicated that four of the five bait treatments reached their sampling capacity. Rarefaction curves indicated that all bait treatments are similar with regard to species accumulation. This could possibly be explained by odours left behind in traps as even un-baited traps (i.e. controls) captured seven different small mammal species. We conclude that the most suitable bait for surveying small mammals at high altitude in South Africa is peanut butter and oats. However, using peanut butter and oats in combination with other bait treatments will improve estimates of diversity when surveying small mammal communities.

We conducted a phylogenetic study through karyological data, by standard staining and Ag-NOR banding, and molecular analysis (by 12S and 16S mitochondrial rRNA genes and nuclear gene C-mos) on 11 species of Malagasy geckos, genus Paroedura, and two relatives (Ebenavia inunguis and Uroplatus phantasticus). Ebenavia inunguis and 17. phantasticus had 2n = 36 telocentric elements, NORs on the first chromosome pair in E. inunguis, and on the third chromosome pair in U. phantasticus. All examined Paroedura showed NORs on the smallest chromosome pair; moreover, six of the eleven examined species show a 2n = 36 karyotype, with a pair of metacentrics and 17 telocentric pair. The remaining species exhibited karyotypes with a diploid chromosome number ranging from 2n = 31 to 2n = 38. We assume that these karyotype assemblages derived from the 2n = 36 karyotype by cryptic and/or simple rearrangements, such as inversions, fissions and fusions. Furthermore, molecular and/or chromosomal data indicate that Paroedura is a monophyletic genus, in which chromosome rearrangements occurred repeatedly and independently during the specific diversification. Moreover both P. bastardi and P. gracilis in current definitions are paraphyletic assemblages of several related species, since their population proves more closely related to P. ibityensis or P. oviceps than co-specific populations. Key words: chromosome, Gekkonidae, Madagascar, Paroedura, molecular phylogeny.

A key benefit and evolutionary driver of group living is reduced predation risk. In white rhinos, groups comprise adult females, their calves and one to six unrelated subadults. Subadults benefit from group living through exposure to novel areas, and protection from territorial males (i.e. ‘buddy system’). In contrast, it is unclear whether mothers benefit from group living. To determine if they benefit, or if there is simply no cost, we recorded the vigilance of white rhino mothers in different-sized groups. We predicted that as group size increased, calves would have lower predation risk and mothers would reduce their vigilance. In contrast, we found that vigilance did not decrease as group size increased. Our findings thus indicate that decreased vigilance is not a benefit that white rhino mothers gain from living in groups. Also, costs of group formation are minimal for mothers as their large body size and ability to feed on a wide range of grasses reduces competition with other group members. As a result, we suggest that the benefits obtained by subadults, coupled with the lack of costs to adult females, are the main drivers of group formation in white rhinos.

Patterns of egg deposition and rates of egg development were examined for two endemic South African scyliorhinid shark species: Poroderma pantherinum, the leopard catshark, and Haploblepharus pictus, the dark shy shark. P. pantherinum laid their eggs at an average depth of 18.95 m (min: 7.4 m; max: : 26.8 m) preferentially attaching their eggs singly onto sea fans Leptogorgia palma, Eunicella papillosa and Eunicella tricoronata. H. pictus laid their eggs at an average depth 3 m (min: 1 m; max: 30.7 m) and attached their eggs, predominantly in pairs, to the seaweed Bifurcariopis capensis. The average temperature at which eggs were found were similar (15°C) and eggs were laid year-round. Embryo development was observed in the laboratory under constant controlled environmental conditions of 14 and 17°C. Embryo length-age relationships were linear for both species and there were significant differences in growth rate at the two temperatures. For P. pantherinum average growth rate was 0.37 mm/day at 14°C and 0.79 mm/day at 17°C. The average incubation period was 266 days at 14°C and 125 days at 17°C. Embryos thus grew two times faster and development time was 53% shorter when the temperature was raised by only 3°C. For H. pictus, the average growth rate was 0.49 mm/day at 14°C and 0.78 mm/day at 17°C. The incubation period was 242 days at 14°C and 190 days at 17°C. The embryos thus grew 1.6 times faster and incubation time was 21.5% shorter when temperature was raised by only 3°C.

Our extension of the phylogenetic study of Taylor et al. (2009) on a larger, more geographically representative sample confirmed their finding of genetically distinct sympatric lineages of bats currently referred to as Chaerephon pumilus sensu lato (s.l.) (family Molossidae) in southeastern Africa. Chaerephon pumilus s.l. comprised two cytochrome b lineages separated by a mean genetic distance of 0.7% (0.1–1.4%), consistent with intraspecific variability. The C. pumilus s.l. clade was paraphyletic, containing a nested C. leucogaster (Madagascar) clade. As well as the expected four mitochondrial control region lineages, we identified a new strongly-supported clade from the Durban area. Indices of diversity and neutrality, combined with a ragged multimodal mismatch distribution, are inconsistent with demographic expansion of a single C. pumilus s.l. population in southeastern Africa, and suggest that the control region lineages are stable units at demographic equilibrium. Dating analyses suggest that these lineages were established during the late Pleistocene, between 60 000 and 13 000 years ago. We found no evidence to support our hypothesis that the sympatric genetic lineages of C. pumilus s.l. are associated with distinct sonotypes, as discriminant function analysis based on four echolocation parameters could not discriminate between the four clades. We hypothesise that the different genetic lineages may be distinguished by differences in social communication and behaviour.

Knowledge of the reproductive biology of wild animals can provide valuable information for the development of appropriate in situ and ex situ management plans. The present study aimed to establish a non-invasive protocol for monitoring faecal progestagen metabolite (FPM) patterns in wild female southern white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum simum). Six adult females at Lapalala Wilderness, South Africa, were tracked and accurately identified at least once every week. Three animals gave birth during the study period. Fresh faecal samples were collected for 12 months and stored frozen at -20°C until analysis with an enzyme immunoassay utilizing an antiserum raised against 5α-pregnan-3β-ol-20-one which cross-reacts with a number of progestagens. Mean FPM concentrations were 35 to 64-fold higher during pregnancy (55–145 days before parturition) compared to postpartum (120–140 days after parturition) (P < 0.001). Also, the non-pregnant animals had mean FPM concentrations significantly higher than postpartum values (P = 0.006). Our results show that non-invasive FPM measurements provide information on the pregnancy status of wild female white rhinoceroses, and may be used for the detection of pregnancy in free-living individuals, without the necessity of immobilization and/or relocation of the animal. This information has potential value for optimizing breeding management of wild and captive populations.

Competition for food resources amongst animal seed dispersers and pilferers has driven dispersers to increasingly innovative seed-caching methods. We determined cache sizes in the field as well as seed cache recovery ability of a scatter-hoarding mouse, Acomys subspinosus, and compared these results to its seed competitor, the seed predator Rhabdomyspumilio. We found that up to 76% of A. subspinosus caches in the field contained one seed and that A. subspinosus was able to find caches of all sizes equally well under wet and dry soil conditions. In contrast, R. pumilio was able to find caches of all sizes in wet soil conditions but recovery success of small caches (single-seed) was poor in dry soil conditions. This suggests that scatter-hoarding may have evolved in A. subspinosus as an anti-pilfering strategy. This strategy would likely work best in dry conditions, where cache pilferers have difficulty locating small caches.

The presence of humans and man-made structures may cause increased wariness in wildlife, causing displacement from traditional habitat ranges. Potential species differences in such responses could affect the composition of wildlife communities around human settlements. We examined the position of ungulate groups relative to man-made infrastructure in the area surrounding Amboseli National Park, Kenya. We analysed the effect of vegetation structure, species differences, and group size on the distance that groups of ungulates were found from man-made structures. There were interspecific differences in these distances and much of this interspecific variation could be explained by body size, with larger species tending to be found further away from manmade structures. In contrast, we found no evidence of an effect of group size or vegetation structure on the distance that ungulates were seen from man-made structures. These results lend further evidence that size influences sensitivity to the presence of human disturbance, and that management strategies may need to tailor to the range requirements of larger species.

Mass mortalities of the ascidian Pyura stolonifera occurred along the Tsitsikamma coast in May 1991 and again in February 2012, following infection of large proportions of the population with a white microbial growth. P. stolonifera appeared to be the only species affected, with the outer tunic the main site of infection. No signs of pollution or algal blooms were observed, but large variations in climatic conditions were associated with both events. The 1991 mortalities occurred during a warm spell in autumn, when there was a rapid increase in the daily air temperatures. Similarly, the February 2012 event occurred after abnormally high air temperatures of January 2012 declined sharply due to a cold-water upwelling event in early February. These findings are compared with those of other marine disease and mortality studies.

Huddling is a behavioural energy conservation mechanism that is widely used by many small endotherms at low ambient temperatures. Huddling has many benefits, including decreasing the metabolic cost of maintaining body temperature (T_b), reducing the amount of heat lost to the environment, and increasing the local temperature of the nest. To test the effects of huddling on T_b, 10 rockhyrax, Procavia capensis, were housed in outside cages in four groups, varying from one to four individuals. iButtons® were surgically implanted into each rock hyrax to record their T_b every 15 min from August to November. Despite considerable variations in ambient temperatures, the rock hyrax were found to display some degree of heterothermy by varying their mean T_b from 36.70 to 37.72°C (n = 10) but not allowing it to drop below 33.60^°C or rise above 39.67°C. Contrary to what was predicted, rock hyrax did not display any significant effects of huddling on T_b, irrespective of group size.

Seventeen confirmed and four probable sightings of humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, were documented from platform-of-opportunity Research Vessel (R/V) Dr. Fridtjof Nansen in a passing-mode visual survey of continental shelf waters between Conakry and Cap Vert Peninsula (Dakar), 21 October -5 November 2011. None were encountered in the northern stratum Dakar-Agadir, 6 November -15 December 2011. Total visual survey effort was 468 h, 01 min, covering 5335 km. Depending on the exclusion or inclusion of probable records, the sum of group sizes totalled 33 or 43 individuals, respectively. Humpback whale encounter rates between Conakry and Dakar then amounted to 1.74 or 2.27 whales/ 100 km, respectively. Group sizes ranged from 1–6 individuals (mean = 1.94, S.D. = 1.20, n = 17; median = 2). Minimally five of 17 groups (29.4%) consisted of adult-calf pairs, with a minimum crude birth rate ranging from 0.060–0.152. All sightings occurred in shallow water, 22–60 m (mean = 35.0 m, S.D. = 10.13, n = 17) but survey effort in deeper, offshore water was negligible. Sea-surface temperature at sighting locations ranged from 25.5–29.0°C (mean = 27.34, S.D. = 0.96, n = 17). No humpback whales were sighted during a second survey covering Conakry-Tangier-Las Palmas, from 9 May to 22 July 2012 (519 h, 13 min; 6278 km). The Cape Verde Islands comprised, to date, the only known wintering ground located in the North-East Atlantic. This study showed that Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau and Guinea are normal range states for M. novaeangliae. A temporal signature, six to seven months out-of-phase with mid-season in the Cape Verde Islands, and neonate presence strongly suggest that the wide Conakry-Dakar continental shelf serves as both wintering and nursery grounds for a South Atlantic stock, in agreement with Bamy et al. (2010). This stock may comprise the northwesternmost component of the large humpback whale assemblage migrating in and out of the northern Gulf of Guinea in austral winter/spring. Further research is required to consolidate insights linking temporal and spatial distribution off western Africa with hemispheric stock identity and migration paths.

This study compares sectioned and whole lapillus and asterisci otoliths as suitable structures for ageing tigerfish, Hydrocynus vittatus. Fifty tigerfish were collected from the Pongolapoort Dam, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Growth zone counts on sectioned lapilli showed the greatest percentage agreement (52%) and highest precision (APE = 4.77%, CV = 6.20%). Growth zone counts were symmetrically distributed between structures (Bowker's tests P > 0.125). Between-reader analysis also showed sectioned lapilli to have the highest percentage agreement (68%) and best precision (APE = 5.55%, CV = 7.85%).

The inverse relationship between reproduction and lifespan is one of the main concepts of life history theory. This association has been observed in most taxa, although exceptions have been found in which a breeding female outlives her non-reproductive cohorts. This relationship is well known in social insects, and it has recently come to light that reproductive females of certain social mole-rat species also exhibit extended lifespans relative to non-breeders. We analysed mark-recapture data over 13 years in 12 colonies of Damaraland mole-rats (Fukomys damarensis) to assess if colony queens lived longer than non-reproductive adult females. Queens were recaptured up to 8.5 years after initial capture ( = 6.2 years); significantly longer than non-reproductive females ( = 1.3 years), suggesting that a colony queen lives longer than her non-reproductive subordinates. This difference may be attributed to both physiological and social factors which may relax reproductive costs in queens.