The lock-and-key hypothesis of genital evolution is evaluated using the highly variable male genitalia of two species of Hystrichophora (Tortricidae: Olethreutinae) moths. Traditionally, morphological differences in male genitalia have been used to differentiate similar species of Lepidoptera, and, while other characters may be examined, it is often assumed that genital morphology is the unique characteristic that “defines” a species. The significance of this assumption is based, many times unknowingly, on the lock-and-key hypothesis, which states that male and female genital compatibility serves to isolate different species reproductively. This concept is tested by quantifying the shape of Hystrichophora male valvae and analyzing variation in individual populations using principal components analysis. The resulting extreme levels of intraspecific variation support evolution by means of sexual selection and reject the traditional lock-and-key hypothesis.

In population and evolutionary genetics it is commonly recognised that more reliable results are often obtained when the number of loci analysed is increased, however lack of DNA is one of several factors which can limit the possibility to increase the number of loci assessed in a given study. A promising way to overcome the problem is the simultaneous amplification of several loci within the same reaction i.e. multiplex PCR. The purpose of the present work was to develop a series of microsatellite multiplexes using a recently released commercial multiplex buffer in order to demonstrate the potential usefulness of PCR multiplexing in a non-model organism. We developed ten multiplex sets of primers for the amplification of 77 microsatellite markers in collared flycatchers, each reaction requiring 30 ng of genomic DNA. The multiplexed microsatellite markers provide an easy and cost effective method for collection of genotype data thereby reducing the quantity of reagents and importantly reducing the quantity of DNA required for obtaining successful amplification to less than 4 ng per locus.

Long-term mallard capture—recapture data from Sweden and Finland were analyzed to describe temporal mortality patterns and reasons. We used program MARK and Seber models to estimate annual survival (S) and recovery (r) rates. Survival rates were used in a Monte Carlo simulation to evaluate the correspondence between observed and predicted annual population sizes of a Finnish sub-population. About 90% of recovered birds died from hunting. Most recoveries were from the hunting season, and more males than females were shot. Predation was the most common cause of natural mortality. Finnish capture—recapture data fitted best the global model in which survival and recovery vary with age and sex. Annual survival and recovery rates for adult and juvenile males and females were overlapping, ranging from 0.46 to 0.90 (survival) and 0.07 to 0.17 (recovery), whereas pulli had lower survival rates (0.21–0.42). Pulli that were successfully sexed at the time of ringing had higher recovery rates (female pulli: 0.23; male pulli: 0.32) than juveniles and adults. Density-dependent fledgling production was detected in the Finnish sub-population and was accounted for in the Monte Carlo simulation, which estimated predicted breeding population size quite well, although one of the observed annual values (2003) fell outside the 95% confidence limits.

Sublethal parasite infections may cause mortality indirectly by exposing the host to predation. Intestinal helminth parasites are common in forest grouse, the capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, the black grouse Tetrao tetrix and the hazel grouse Bonasa bonasia, and these grouse are valuable prey for several species of predators. We evaluated the hypothesis that parasite infection makes the host more vulnerable to predation by comparing the intestinal parasite infection status of grouse hunted with a trained dog to that of grouse hunted without a dog. Cestode infections were more common in grouse hunted with a dog supporting the hypothesis. Cestodes were mostly parasites of juvenile grouse but even among juveniles only, cestodes were more prevalent in dogassisted hunting bag. The results suggest that mammalian predators could prey more selectively on parasitized individuals and that intestinal parasites may contribute to the high mortality of juvenile grouse through increased predation.

We studied roost switching and habitat selection of 16 P. pygmaeus females tagged in two nursery colonies. There were differences in overnight roosting and flying. The highest foraging activity was observed over water bodies, at forest edges and near street lamps. During each night, each female visited at least one night-roost, and five females regularly visited two roosts. On average, the females visited a roost 3.7 times per night. After parturition, the distances between night roosts and day roosts increased. The number of night roosts used declined as pups neared weaning. Five females changed day roosts after two nights. Based on the observation of flightless young in new roosts a conclusion was reached that some females transported their offspring to new roosts at night. After lactation began, some females visited roosts occupied by vocalizing males of P. pygmaeus and P. nathusii.

Weather conditions can influence birds' breeding performance through changes in metabolism of a female and can also directly affect eggs and chicks. I studied the influence of ambient temperature, variation in ambient temperature and rainfall on the breeding performance of the red-backed shrike Lanius collurio in 1999–2003 in the extensively agricultural landscape of eastern Poland. I did not find any influence of the analysed weather conditions on clutch size, mean egg volume in a clutch, variation of egg volume in a clutch and losses between the numbers of laid and hatched eggs. A probable explanation is that weather and food conditions are usually favourable for red-backed shrikes during egg laying and incubation, and males provide frequent supplemental feeding to the females at these stages of breeding. Probably, the extensively farmed agricultural area provides an abundant food base for the study population living there, which allows the red-backed shrike to quickly compensate its energy expenditures.

Accurate estimates of population size and distribution are a prerequisite for effective management of populations, but for most species a reliable estimation of the absolute population size is very difficult. In 1998, the Finnish Ministry of Environment set up a working group to plan a national-level survey for estimation and monitoring of the population size of Siberian flying squirrel (Pteromys volans). In 2006, the population size was reported to be 143 000 females. However, evaluation of the magnitude of possible biases was not attempted. Our aim was to test the population size estimate by conducting a resampling study with the methods of the national survey on an eartagged population of flying squirrels. We found that the methods used in the national survey provide greatly upward biased estimates. Moreover, the magnitude of the bias in the method seems to be sensitive to the true population sizes rendering the method unsuitable for population trend monitoring purposes. Therefore, we caution against using the national survey method in monitoring or in making conclusions about the population size of the Siberian flying squirrel.

We explored the interspecific variation patterns in the limb skeleton of four crested newts that underwent an extensive evolutionary diversification. All studied species shared the same basipodial pattern, within which the carpus exhibited much more variation than the tarsus. Morphometric analysis of stylopodium, zeugopodium, and the third metapodial element showed that the species differed in the size of skeletal elements, but they shared common allometric slopes. In comparison to the other crested newts, T. dobrogicus appeared as the outlier due to (1) significantly shorter stylopodium and zeugopodium relative to body size and (2) rather different anatomical designs regarding ossification level of the basipodium. Based on these results, it is suggested that the observed T. dobrogicus uniqueness originates from allometric heterochrony paralleled by a profound switch in habitat preference.