The grasshopper subfamily Melanoplinae, comprising a large number of genera and species, maintains a distribution throughout Eurasia and the New World. Despite various attempts to subdivide the subfamily, taxonomic assignments within the Melanoplinae remain unclear. However, the placement of Eurasian and related Nearctic genera within a separate tribe, Podismini, is a common feature within most proposed taxonomic schemes. The Podismini have been independently divided into two and four subtribes on the basis of cytogenetic and morphological traits, respectively; however, the two schemes differ with respect to the placement of certain genera. This study analyses sequence data obtained from portions of four mitochondrial genes (cyt b, COII, ND2, and COI) to (1) test the hypothesis that Eurasian podismines are monophyletic and (2) examine which, if any, of the proposed subtribal affiliations is correct. The view that the nominate genus, Podisma, represents a form closely related to the ancestral podismine stock was also examined. Parsimony, neighbor-joining, and likelihood tree construction methods demonstrate strong support for claims of Eurasian podismine monophyly. Application of the molecular clock method places the separation from North American melanoplines at ≈62 mya. Neither cytogenetic nor morphological subtribal assignations of genera within Podismini is supported by molecular data. Lastly, our analysis shows that Podisma, rather than occupying a basal position among the podismines as suggested in the literature, is a more recently evolved genus.

Morphology of the third antennal segment and compound eyes of adults of the whitefly species Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), B. argentifolii Bellows & Perring, B. tuberculata (Bondar), Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood), T. variablilis (Quaintance), and Aleurotrachelus socialis (Bondar) were studied using scanning electron microscopy to aid in identification of adult whiteflies in cassava and beans in Colombia. Random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction markers proved complementary to the morphological identification of whitefly species and the only rapid method to distinguish individuals in the Bemisia tabaci species complex. From each species of whitefly, a region of the mitochondrial 16S rDNA gene was amplified, cloned and the sequence determined. Parsimony and distance analyses were performed and the results were similar to those based on morphology. The distance between the two species of Trialeurodes was greater than expected for two species within the same genus. The combination of morphological and molecular traits is useful in understanding the diversity and evolution of these whitefly species.

The Neotropical genus Agaporomorphus Zimmermann is revised. The genus includes five species, including three new species: A. mecolobus Miller, new species, A. dolichodactylus Miller, new species and A. grandisinuatus Miller, new species. A key is presented for identification of the species. Agaporomorphus inaciculatus Guignot is transferred to the genus Hydrodytes Miller, new combination. Male and female genitalia and other taxonomically important features are illustrated. A phylogenetic analysis of the genus is presented.

All known species of New World Procryptotermes are defined and distribution records revised. Two new species, P. hesperus from Cuba and the Bahamas, and P. leewardensis from the Leeward Islands, are described along with a redescription of P. corniceps (Snyder) from the central Antilles. New records for the recently described P. edwardsi Scheffrahn are given along with a key to imagos and soldiers of New World Procryptotermes.

The genetic interactions between European and African-derived honey bees in the Neotropics are unclear. To study the abundance of males of each type, two apiaries with colonies of African-derived honey bee and European honey bee origin were established in the surroundings of one drone congregation area. The frequencies of African-derived honey bee and European honey bee males in the mating area were studied by taking samples of drones at the drone congregation area twice a month for 5 mo. Drones from each type of colony were identified by the use of two allozyme polymorphic systems: malate dehydrogenase (Mdh), hexokinase (Hk), and by haplotype using the EcoRI site of the mitochondrial DNA. The results of a Fisher exact test showed that, although Mdh alleles had similar frequencies across the time of study (P = 0.095), the frequency of Hk alleles and haplotypes in drones varied between months (P = 0.0001). Early in March, the frequencies of African-derived honey bee-typical alleles were significantly higher compared with European honey bee-typical alleles. However, at the end of the season of drone production in July, European honey bee-typical alleles were significantly more frequent in drones than those of the African-derived honey bee type. The results mirror the findings of an early peak of drone brood production reported for African-derived honey bee colonies compared with a peak later in the year in European honey bee ones. It is concluded that the seasonal frequencies of African-derived honey bee and European honey bee drones in the mating areas are not static. They vary in accordance with the different peaks of male production in their respective colonies. This behavior may act as a partial genetic barrier between bee types. The implications of these findings with respect to current levels of Africanization in this region of Mexico and for queen rearing in Africanized areas are discussed.

The giant honey bee Apis dorsata F. inhabits lowland tropical rainforests in Southeast Asia, where a general, community-wide flowering occurs at intervals of 4 yr on average. The numerical response by the honey bee population to the drastic increase of flower resources during general flowering was investigated for 6 yr by monthly light-trapping and by nest counts in a lowland dipterocarp forest in Borneo. The numbers of A. dorsata workers obtained by light-trapping were highest during general flowering periods, whereas very few workers were trapped in other periods. The abundance of A. dorsata nests showed temporal correspondence with the abundance of trapped workers, and the nests disappeared in the nonflowering periods. These data suggest that the A. dorsata population increases rapidly in response to general flowering and that this is initiated by nonseasonal, long-distance migration. Drones of A. dorsata were present during the general flowering period, but there is no evidence that reproduction by A. dorsata occurs only in general flowering periods. Fluctuation in abundance by the honey bee A. koschevnikovi Enderlein was also observed by monthly light-trapping. The temporal trend of this species was similar to that of A. dorsata, but sightings persisted even in the nonflowering periods. Both honey bees responded numerically to floral resources, but long-distance migration in A. koschevnikovi was unlikely.

In the wasp Trypoxylon malaisei Gussakovskji, mating occurs among siblings that have emerged from the same nest (local mate competition). Although local mate competition theories predict that mothers should produce the minimum number of sons sufficient to inseminate all daughters in each nest, 30% of nests that we examined contained only females, and 5% contained only males. We examined three nest properties (brood size, length of the unoccupied space, and thickness of the outermost wall) to determine whether a nest was complete. All-female nests had smaller brood sizes, larger unoccupied spaces, and thinner outermost walls than mixed-sex nests, suggesting that all-female nests were incomplete. All-male nests had brood sizes and unoccupied spaces similar to those of all-female nests, although the thickness of the walls was inconsistent. We discuss problems arising from the inclusion of incomplete broods in analyzing sex-ratio data.

In northwestern Costa Rica, Agelaia yepocapa (Richards) nests in cavities within living hollow trees in lower montane mesic forests; A. panamaensis (Cameron) nests in very large cavities in premontane gallery forests. Nests of both species have vertical combs with horizontal cells that face outward from the nest center; the nests have no enclosing envelope. In January 1996, an A. yepocapa colony was in full brood production, while an A. panamaensis colony was in the last stage of colony decline, and a nearby A. panamaensis colony had terminated only weeks before. The appearance of a small aggregation of A. panamaensis in a montane cloud forest site, too small to support a colony as large as those that had recently reached the end of a colony cycle in a nearby premontane gallery forest, suggests that the colony cycle of A. panamaensis in northwestern Costa Rica has a seasonal pattern that includes elevational migration and possible non-nesting quiescence at cool high elevations. Morphometric contrasts of queen and worker A. yepocapa confirm caste dimorphism that has been reported for other Agelaia species. The multivariate analysis presented here reveals caste differences that can only have occurred as a result of a dichotomy in developmental pathways during larval growth. Individuals of both species performed the behavior of gaster flagging during colony defense. The role of gaster flagging in these wasps is unknown. Near-nest aggressiveness of cavity-nesting wasps is higher than that of wasps that nest in exposed locations, perhaps as a correlate of the scarcity of suitable cavities for nesting. The sting of A. panamaensis is particularly painful. The A. panamaensis colony that was in decline was host to diverse inquilines and a parasitoid. The A. yepocapa nest collection included two parasitoid species.

I studied the diurnal and ontological patterns of feeding by European corn borer adults, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), and characterized the effect of feeding on adult mortality in the laboratory. Adults were provided a sucrose diet and water ad libitum, and were observed at periodic intervals to estimate the proportion feeding on sucrose or water. Dead adults were counted daily to estimate mortality. Adults preferred to feed on the sucrose diet during the first week of life, but not thereafter. Feeding occurred mainly just after the lights were turned off but also just after lights were turned on, and this time preference also waned by the second week of life. Daily mortality rates increased during adult life. These results are consistent with other studies on adult mortality, and suggest that feeding on sugar may be beneficial for adults only when their life expectancy exceeds 4 d.

Consumption rates, development times, and life table parameters of the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), were determined on five host plants: cabbage, Brassica oleracea capitata L; cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L.; bell pepper, Capsicum annuum L.; pigweed, Amaranthus retroflexus L.; and sunflower, Helianthus annuus L. Mean total leaf weight consumed by larvae was highest in cabbage (2.7 g) and lowest in pigweed (1.6 g). The feeding index (pupal weight divided by total weight of leaf tissue consumed) was highest on pigweed, followed by cotton, pepper, sunflower, and cabbage. On all host plants, significant relationships were found between amount of leaf tissue consumed and resulting pupal weight. Likewise, significant relationships were found between pupal weight and subsequent adult fecundity on all host plants. The highest percentage of female progeny was recorded in S. exigua reared on pigweed (62.2%) and the lowest for larvae reared on cabbage (43.6%). Duration of the larval stage was shortest on pigweed (12.4 d) and longest on pepper (18.0 d). Larval survival was highest on pigweed (94.4%) and lowest on cabbage (67.1%). Three key statistics were used to assess performance of S. exigua on the different host plants: 1) feeding index, 2) intrinsic rate of increase, r; and 3) growth index (percentage immature survival divided by immature development time). Using these measures, S. exigua performance was best on pigweed, worst on cabbage, and intermediate on cotton, pepper, and sunflower. We discuss the implications of these findings for control of S. exigua.

We studied mosquito faunas of four wetlands from northern to southern Sweden by trapping female mosquitoes in June, July, and August. A total of 52,298 individuals comprising 32 species in five genera were identified. The number of species increased from 10 and 12 in the two northern wetlands, to 16 in the central Sweden study area, to 24 in the wetland in southern Sweden. For a further characterization of mosquito fauna diversity, we organized all species recorded from Sweden into 14 functional groups based on biological and life history characteristics. The number of groups increased from three in the two northern study areas, to eight in central Sweden, and 13 in the southernmost study area. All functional groups present at one site were also present at the sites located farther south. Most successful species were univoltine, respiring from the water surface, laying their eggs on soil, overwintering in the egg stage, preferring forested or partly forested habitats, and having mammals as hosts for blood meals. The mosquito faunas of the two northern study areas were similar and lacked several of the functional groups occurring further south. The mosquito fauna of the study area in central Sweden included species feeding on birds and with overwintering larvae. In the southernmost study area, 13 out of 14 functional groups were found, indicating a large variety of habitats. Our results demonstrated a southward increase in the number of both mosquito species and functional groups in forested wetlands.

We examined the diversity of Lepidoptera in several Ohio natural areas at local and regional scales. First, we conducted a field study to assess effects of spatial and temporal extent on species accumulation in inventories of forest moth communities in the North Central Tillplain Ecoregion. We then compared the complementarity among moth communities found in nature reserves in two other Ohio ecoregions to the moth community described from the North Central Tillplain. As expected, more moth species were inventoried when multiple sites and multiple years were examined. Species accumulation curves did not saturate for any inventory, regardless of spatial or temporal extent. Within the North Central Tillplain, nature reserves of similar size and floristic composition supported equally rich moth communities but species turnover among reserves suggested that floristically similar habitats supported different species assemblages. Species turnover estimates were not significantly different between macro- and microlepidoptera; rarity was more important in determining community heterogeneity than coarse taxonomic affiliation. At a regional scale, nature reserves in different Ohio ecoregions had a species complementarity of 50–70%, indicating significant turnover of species across broad scales. This suggests that considerable heterogeneity exists among moth communities at both local and regional scales. Successful conservation of Lepidoptera in fragmented landscapes should strive to represent the natural heterogeneity of species richness at both local and regional scales.

The rose eye color mutation is described in Anastrepha sp.1 aff. fraterculus. It changes the color of the wild-type eyes from reddish with a blue-green iridescence to yellow-orange with a rosy iridescence. The wild-type and rose phenotypes are distinguishable in dried individuals at least 2–3 wk after death. Rose is transmitted as a recessive autosomal mutation. Disruption of the ommatidial pattern was observed as an alignment irregularity and enlargement of some individual ommatidia. Mutant individuals have reduced fitness relative to the wild-type. The rose mutation, the first one described in Anastrepha, has potential use in release-recapture studies and as a marker for mass-reared flies.

The third-instar larva and breeding behavior of Pedaridium almeidai Pereira and P. brasiliensis Ferreira & Galileo are described using material collected at São Paulo, Brazil, and, the third-instar larva of P. adisi (Ratcliffe) is redescribed. The most important morphological characteristics for larval stages are found in the epipharynx, the setation of the venter of the last abdominal segment, the endoskeletal lines of the anal lobes, the mandibles, and the respiratory plate of the thoracic spiracle. A key to the known larvae of the genus Pedaridium is also provided. Results show that P. almeidai is more similar to P. adisi than P. brasiliensis. The presence/absence of stridulatory areas on the mandibles, the form of the frontal suture, the form of the sensorial area of the antennae, the form of the molar and scissorial areas of the mandibles, and the different size and form of the lacinia suggest a possible polyphyly of the genus Pedaridium. Results confirm the endocoprid breeding behavior of Pedaridium, which together with Trichillum, represents the most primitive breeding pattern of Scarabaeinae. In the species studied, there is neither food relocation nor brood ball construction. This primitive breeding behavior implies exploitation without modification or relocation of the resource. Possible kleptoparasitism was observed in P. brasiliensis.

As adults, many parasitoid wasps require carbohydrates for reproduction and self-maintenance. Consequently, many adult female parasitoids that require carbohydrate foods located at a distance from host patches face a trade-off between searching for hosts and food. In a series of experiments using a Y-tube olfactometer, we explored how hunger affects the foraging decisions of Bathyplectes curculionis (Thomson), a parasitoid of alfalfa weevil larvae. In particular, we tested whether an unfed parasitoid female is more likely to search for food while a fed female is more likely to initiate host-searching by first orienting to odors from the plants on which the host insect feeds. When offered a choice between odors of the weevil’s host plant foliage (alfalfa, Medicago sativa L.) and a flower commonly found in the alfalfa field habitat (dandelion, Taraxacum officinale Weber), unfed female wasps preferred the floral odor and fed wasps preferred odors of the host plant. The wasps preferred odors of inflorescences of dandelion over those of phacelia, Phacelia tanacetifolia Bentham, a plant not found in alfalfa fields. Both fed and unfed wasps, however, responded positively to phacelia odor when offered against a control. When the wasps were given the choice between phacelia flowers and alfalfa foliage, neither unfed nor fed wasps expressed a preference for either odor. An important consideration in introduction and conservation of parasitoids in biological control is a parasitoid’s varying responsiveness to host-habitat and floral odors as influenced by physiological state.

Effects of starvation on death-feigning behavior, or thanatosis, were observed in adults of the sweetpotato weevil, Cylas formicarius (F.). A significantly lower proportion of death-feigned adults was observed in starved weevils compared with unstarved controls in both sexes. However, females needed a longer starvation period than males to show the decreased proportion of death-feigning. This contrast between males and females was caused by a differential tolerance of the sexes for starvation, because males died earlier than females without food. Starved male weevils had a shorter duration to recover from the death-feigning. There may be situations where C. formicarius gives priority to assuring food consumption compared with escaping from predators.

Cladistic analysis is used to study the evolution of 29 biological characters related to nesting behavior, nest provisioning, oviposition, cocoon spinning, defecation, and life cycle (nest characters) in 11 species of Osmia bees (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) and two outgroup genera. A molecular phylogeny based on 38 allozyme loci-as-characters and a combined character phylogeny are produced to compare with the nest character phylogeny. All phylogenetic trees support the monophyly of the genus Osmia and the subgenus Osmia (Osmia) with Osmia ribifloris Cockerell basal to the other species in this subgenus. The subgenus Helicosmia (=Chalcosmia) is resolved as a sister clade to O. (Osmia) in the molecular tree and as sister to the subgenus Cephalosmia in the nest character and combined trees. Incomplete biological information from additional species of all three subgenera is provided to support the consistency of nest characters at the subgeneric level and their use in the establishment of subgeneric phylogenies in the family Megachilidae.