Globally, human development has proceeded at a rapid pace for the past several decades for both terrestrial and aquatic/marine environments. Project developers, government decision-makers and the public have had little data regarding the relative values of natural resources, or losses thereof, to facilitate project – and corresponding natural resource takings/ecosystem degradation – decision-making, resulting in intrinsic, but poorly quantified, environmental degradation.

Accordingly, we have found that an effective strategy for communicating the value of ecosystems and related natural resources to facilitate smart resource management is to monetize the replacement value of resource losses from development. A number of tools have been developed for monetizing resource value, including quantitative mitigation analysis to address compensating for ecosystem and related natural resource losses due to human development.

Quantitative Mitigation Analysis is a methodology developed to assist project developers and regulatory agencies alike with developing or evaluating cost-effective, defensible, quantitatively based compensatory mitigation strategies for developments that result in the taking of, or diminution in quality to, habitats and related natural resources. Quantitative Mitigation Analysis quantifies loss of ecological function from proposed developments and determines the amount of mitigation required as compensation. This paper introduces and describes Quantitative Mitigation Analysis and presents a case example that demonstrates how Quantitative Mitigation Analysis may be applied to construction projects resulting in substantive habitat destruction for the benefit of project developers and the regulatory community alike.

The Arabian Gulf is exposed to intensive dust storms during summer until early winter. We investigated the nutritive effect of the dust on microbial biodiversity of the water column and the productivity of the Gulf. We collected samples from three sites in a transect perpendicular to the shore in March (before the strong dust storms) and in October (after the dust season) in 2013. At the three sites, we sampled the water column at three depths, and see-floor sediments using a HAPS corer. We also sampled the sand dunes that are the source of the dust. We analyzed the samples for pigments, microbial community composition using a 16S rRNA analysis, and nutrients. Our results showed that species richness and biodiversity were higher in October than in March. The relative abundances of key-player microorganisms were strongly pronounced in October. We assume that the dust rapidly sinks to the seafloor where the nutrients Fe and P are liberated through iron reduction. Assuming that all phosphate diffusing from the seafloor originates from the dust particles after deposition, we estimated a contribution of minimum 30,000 tons of fish produced every year in the Gulf. We found no close temporal coupling between dust storms and productivity. This is because nutrient liberation from the seafloor is slow and its transport from the seafloor to the photic zone by circulation processes is irregular. This study highlights the importance of dust as a source of nutrients in the Gulf ecosystem.

The study provides an assessment of sand dredging activities from the bottom of the sea during 2016 in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Total Suspended Solids were analyzed from 2010 until 2016 in the northern and eastern locations according to the Manual of oceanographic observations and pollutant analyses methods. Fifty five percent of sand dredging companies complied with some legislation such as air quality and occupational health. Almost all lacked any compliancy evidence supporting environmental protection. Only 9% of these sand companies use siltation processes to the dredged materials. Siltation is an important step to avoid dispersion of sand into the marine environment. Ambient Total Suspended Solids was around 6.1 mgl^-1± Standard Error and the study recommends 10 mgl^-1level as an accepted concentration in samples taken from 500 meters away from the dredgers and 100 mgl^-1in samples taken from the middle of the generated silt plumes. The effect of climatic temperatures, dust storms and rain levels on seawater Total Suspended Solids concentration has been briefly discussed. The study concludes no significance seasonal or spatial variation on the ambient Total Suspended Solids concentration. It recommends coupling remote sensing with the conventional data collection and integration of modelling efforts for effective cost benefit monitoring and management of the coastal waters.

The purpose of this research was to (1) identify an existing water quality index methodology that could be used in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, and (2) apply the water quality index to Abu Dhabi's waters to communicate water quality conditions and track changes in conditions over time. The available monitoring data were reviewed to establish the types and frequencies of data available to populate an index, and a literature search was performed to identify and review existing water quality ind in use around the world. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index was selected and customized for use in Abu Dhabi. Using the Canadian Council of Ministers Water Quality Index, two different data aggregation methods were investigated for developing a single Emirate-wide Water Quality Index score. Finally, an alternative method for calculating indices when there are fewer than four parameters was investigated. Three Water Quality Indexs were developed for use in Abu Dhabi: Eutrophication Index, Microbial Index, and Heavy Metals (in sediment) Index. The Canadian Council of Ministers Water Quality Index methodology was found to be relatively easy to use and flexible as a building block for tailored indices, which are used to communicate marine water quality conditions to various stakeholders, including scientists, managers, policymakers, and the public.

Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates, has a coastline that occupies 76% of the country's Arabian Gulf coastline. The pressures accompanying the economic development that the country is undergoing ultimately affected the marine ecosystem including water and sediment quality. In order to protect the marine ecosystem and public health, the Environment Agency- Abu Dhabi developed ambient marine water and sediment quality standards using the long-term data collected along the coast of Abu Dhabi. Along with the data collected on 39 marine water quality and sediment parameters (hydrography, nutrients, and heavy metals), a review of best practices from jurisdictions whose approach was scientifically based and whose physical conditions were as similar as possible to those found in Abu Dhabi were used for the establishment of marine water and sediment quality limits. These promulgated ambient limits were then used to develop the marine water and sediment regulation that establish two uses of marine waters (protected and general) and an anti-degradation policy. In addition, the ambient water and sediment limits provide a bench mark to both assess trends that may indicate stress to marine flora and fauna and support the work of environmental permitting and enforcement.

Coral reefs in the southern Persian/Arabian Gulf have become increasingly degraded in the past two decades, mainly due to recurrent mass coral bleaching events. The recovery of these reefs will be largely contingent upon the arrival and settlement of coral larvae and their post settlement growth and survival. Spatial and temporal patterns of coral settlement were quantified on 10 sites spanning >350km of the southern Gulf using settlement tiles for two years when consecutive bleaching events occurred. Coral settlement was highly seasonal, with peak settlement occurring in summer each year (>95% of spat), with the remainder of settlement in autumn. Coral settlement was >2-fold greater in the first year (928spat) compared to the second year (397spat) representing overall settlement densities of 95 m^-2 yr^-1 versus 40 m^-2 yr^-1. The dramatic declines in larval settlement between years suggests bleaching-related impacts on fecundity occurred during the gametogenic cycle late in the first year, as well as impaired survivorship of larvae and/or spat during the second year when severe bleaching coincided with the peak settlement period. Poritids and merulinids (‘others') comprised 4% and 94% of the spat, respectively, while acroporids were virtually absent (1 recorded spat), suggesting the continued extirpation of this formerly dominant group and a continuing shift towards more stress-tolerant assemblages. Settlement rates in the southern Gulf are low in comparison to other marginal reef environments, and the bleaching-related suppression of settlement observed here suggests that larval supply is unlikely to be sufficient to support recovery of these increasingly degraded habitats. Given the increasing frequency of bleaching events in the southern Gulf the prognosis for the future of regional reefs is grim.

Human activities and coastal development driven by economic growth in countries bordering the Arabian Gulf have increased marine pollution, including eutrophication. In response to growing concerns, the Environment Agency- Abu Dhabi initiated a long-term monitoring survey (2006 to 2019) to study the marine water quality of Abu Dhabi, including the Mussafah South Channel (MSC). This confined area is of eutrophic nature, under pressure due to receiving approximately 400,000 m³ of treated sewage per day and continuous algal blooms incidents with maximum concentration of 18 x 10⁷ cells l^-1. Observations made on physical, chemical, and biological parameters, such as temperature (18 -35°C), salinity (28 – 70 psu), pH (5 to 9), and dissolved oxygen (0.02 – 13mg l^-1) revealed abnormal conditions and a stratified water column. The nutrient values, particularly nitrate (2.90 –866.06Mol l^-1) and phosphate (1.68 -98.24Mol l^-1), were many times higher than Abu Dhabi's reference values (3.55Mol l^-1and 1.58Mol l^-1, respectively) which confirmed its eutrophic nature. Algal blooms were frequently recorded, and were associated with widespread harmful impacts, including hypoxic events (oxygen levels of 0.02mg l^-1), finfish kills (Nematalosa nasus) and subsequent loss of benthic organisms. The deterioration of water quality in the MSC is probably due to the anthropogenic activities, insufficient treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater discharges. Extensive sediment load may also have exacerbated the situation and contributed to eutrophication and subsequent alteration of the ecosystem. The sources, composition and consequences of nutrient enrichment along with the management actions are also discussed in detail.

The maintenance of coral reef framework results from a balance between skeletal accretion and bioerosion, and this balance can be disrupted by environmental stress and disturbance. Coral reefs in northeastern Arabia exist in extreme environmental conditions and have experienced severe disturbances in recent years. This study assessed the intensity of macrobioerosion in two regionally common species, Platygyra daedalea and Cyphastrea microphthalma, at three sites within the southern Persian/Arabian Gulf and at one site in the Sea of Oman. On average, bioeroders removed 9.2±1.6% of the skeletal surface area in P. daedalea and 26.4±1.6% in C. microphthalma, with variation between species attributed to differences in colony morphology. Bioerosion intensity varied among sites in each species. Within the southern Arabian Gulf, both P. daedalea and C. microphthalma showed the highest bioerosion intensity at Delma, in the western region, compared with that of Saadiyat or Ras Ghanada to the east, with the elevated bioerosion at Delma consistent with a history of more extreme environmental conditions and bleaching-related disturbances. The highest bioerosion in P. daedalea occurred at Fujairah in the Sea of Oman, and this site was amongst the highest in C. microphthalma. Although this site is characterized by more benign environmental conditions, reefs in this area experienced mass coral mortality due to anoxia during a large-scale harmful algal bloom in 2008/9 and the high bioerosion in Fujairah likely represents a long-term signature of this disturbance. The intensity of macrobioerosion observed here is high compared with other regions, suggesting that that chronic exposure to long-term environmental stress and a history of disturbance may lead enhanced loss of reef framework.

Kuwait, which is located in the northwestern Arabian Gulf, has experienced several incidences of marine life mortality during the past two decades. Mortalities included pelagic and benthic fish, Sea Cucumbers and Mollusks including pearl oysters. Most of the mortalities occurred in Kuwait Bay, which is shallow and semi-enclosed. The Bay encompasses Sulaibikhat Bay, whose coastal waters are nutrient-rich and eutrophicated due to sewage discharge into its waters. Other mortalities were reported outside Kuwait Bay, especially in marinas and southern waters of Kuwait. Kuwait's marine environment has been increasingly affected by harmful algal blooms, which increased by frequency and severity. Other Gulf countries experienced serious mortality incidences as well. Different causes were responsible for the different marine mortalities in Kuwait and the region, including untreated sewage input, eutrophication, bacterial infection, algal blooms, hypoxic conditions, pollution, and dredging. The above mortalities impacted the economy, and affected aquaculture activities, the fishing operations, coastal tourism, damaged coral reefs, and forced the closure of desalination plants. This study summarizes the different mortality incidents that occurred in the northwestern Arabian Gulf during the period of 1999 to 2019 and their possible causes. Efforts, taken by Kuwait to improve the environmental conditions of the degraded coastal area of Kuwait Bay, include for example, the designation of a marine protected area in southern Kuwait Bay that would ensure the continued production of ecological services of the protected Bay area.

Species-specific biological data are commonly combined with fishery operational data to model exploited stocks and determine appropriate levels of exploitation. However, this approach to fishery management is predicated on the ability of fishery data collectors to correctly identify exploited species. Sharks and other elasmobranch fishes (Elasmobranchii) can be particularly difficult to identify in the field, due to the close physical similarity to other species and/or a lack of taxonomic resolution in some lineages. This paper provides an overview of the difficulties surrounding the field identification of a number of elasmobranch species found in the Arabian/Persian Gulf, where they are heavily exploited and in urgent need of careful management.

Seabirds form important components of marine ecosystems, serving as top predators that indicate long-term stability through feeding interactions. Many species of seabirds reside within the Arabian Gulf although their role in this marine system is not well characterized. Furthermore, oil exploitation and development activities have reduced many species significantly. In this review, I use the Socotra Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis) as an example of the biology, movement and conservation of seabirds in the Arabian Gulf. Socotra Cormorants are among the most numerically abundant seabirds residing within the Arabian Gulf. The species has a restricted range spanning from Arabian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman and south into the Gulf of Aden. They are categorized as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Between 56,800-82,800 breeding pairs occur in the United Arab Emirates on 9-12 islands. Breeding season stretches from August to December although delayed or disrupted breeding could result in breeding seasons extending to March. They feed on small forage fish including anchovies (Encrasicholina spp.) with potentially high biomass of small fish taken annually totaling to 11,000-18,000 tons annually. Foraging activities occur in coastal, shallow waters under 15m in depth. On Siniya Island in the east, migration begins in December and birds fly to the central portion of the Arabian Gulf within waters of Abu Dhabi. Summer roosting areas could be associated with movement of fish in to deeper, low-productivity waters during the harsh summers. Patterns of foraging during the breeding season and migration after breeding activities highlight areas that need protection. Future protection of the species would require coordination between different jurisdictions within UAE as well as in Oman.

The Gulf (or Persian Gulf) suffers from multiple anthropogenic stressors relating primarily to its position as the centre of the global oil industry. Environmental degradation including oil spills, loss of coastal habitat, algal blooms and invasive species is evident but finding the right approach to address such degradation is challenging. The North American Great Lakes faced (and continues to face) similar challenges. The governments of Canada and the United States signed the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA), which committed both countries to take concrete actions to protect the lakes. The GLWQA also offered a management framework called the Ecosystem Approach to deal with existing as well as emerging threats. A similar commitment to protect the Gulf, and more importantly the people who depend on it for their livelihood, is essential.