In our study, we asked whether butterflies visiting Chaetanthera lycopodioides (Asteraceae) in the subnival at 3450 m a.s.l. in the central Andes prefer larger floral displays. To answer this question, we compared the population distribution of display sizes with the distribution of visited display sizes at two sites. Six high elevation butterflies: Faunula leucoglene (Satyridae) (the dominant species), Hylephila sp. (Hesperiidae), Phulia nymphula (Pieridae), Vanessa terpsichore (Nymphalidae), Tatochila mercedis (Nymphalidae), and Yramea modesta (Nymphalidae) were reported as visitors. Butterflies tended to discriminate against plants with a single open head, preferring larger display sizes at both sites. Butterflies visited few plants per bout (mean: 3.1–4.5) and probed increasingly smaller proportions of the open heads per plant with increasing display size (overall mean: 45.8–48.4%). Results suggest that high elevation butterflies tend to prefer larger display sizes over smaller ones, but final choices are conditioned by the relative abundance of each display size in a population. Although previous studies show that butterflies prefer larger artificial individual flowers over smaller ones, our work appears to constitute the first report of butterfly preference for larger floral displays in any plant species or ecosystem.

Alpine treeline ecotones can be gradual transitions, abrupt boundaries, or patchy mosaics, and these different patterns may indicate important processes and dynamic properties. We present observed spatial patterns of a wide range of tropical treelines and try to explain these patterns. Treelines were studied at seven sites in the tropical and subtropical Andes (Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela) and on a Hawaiian volcano (Haleakala, Maui). Treeline vegetation structure was described using transects perpendicular to the treeline, and air and soil temperatures were measured above and below the forest boundary. Temperature fluctuations were much larger and the average temperature was higher in alpine vegetation than in forest. Most treelines were abrupt, with surprisingly similar patterns across a wide geographical range. This abruptness could result from positive feedback processes mediated by the differences in microclimate between forest and páramo. Our data is not conclusive about the relative importance of microclimate as opposed to fire in mediating such feedbacks. However, our extensive set of comparable data from different sites in a large geographical region is an important step toward a better understanding of the nature and dynamics of tropical alpine treelines.

Much of the low Arctic is covered with shrubs that are partially buried by snow in winter and become exposed during melt. This study presents measurements and modeling of shortwave radiation reflection and extinction by a deciduous shrub canopy emerging from a melting snowcover in the mountains of the Yukon Territory, Canada. Shrubs shade most of the snow surface at low solar elevation angles, so only a fraction of the incoming radiation reaches the surface, but there is greater direct shortwave transmission to the surface in gaps between shrubs for higher solar elevations. A simple model is developed to incorporate the changing contributions of sun-lit gaps, shaded gaps, and shrubs to the landscape-averaged (areal) transmission and reflection of shortwave radiation. The areal transmissivity and albedo in this model are lower than in a two-stream approximation that neglects gap shading. A simple shadow parameterization is proposed for calculating shrub tundra snowmelt rates and surface energy balances in hydrological and land-surface models.

Ozone in interstitial air was studied in the seasonal, mid-latitude snowpack at a subalpine forest site at Niwot Ridge, Colorado, from January to June 2004. Sampling techniques were developed for continuous, vertical gradient measurements of ozone and temperature at four depths in the snowpack. During this time period, ozone in ambient air ranged from 15 to 80 ppbv, while in the snowpack ozone mixing ratios generally were below 5 ppbv, showed little variability, and decreased to less than 10% of ambient air levels within the first 10–20 cm below the surface. This ozone gradient (ambient air-snowpack air) appeared to be independent of solar radiation cycles. These findings are in contrast to similar studies in the polar snowpack, where a much deeper penetration of ozone into the snowpack and strong dependencies of the ozone gradient on incoming solar radiation levels has been reported. These observations imply that ozone levels in the seasonal, mid-latitude snowpack are determined by different processes, and overall are lower than in the year-round snowpack. A new question that needs to be addressed is to what degree these contrasting findings are caused by differences in the physical properties of these snowpacks (which will affect gas exchange processes), their chemical composition, and by the influence of the substrate below the snow and soil-snowpack-atmosphere gas exchange processes.

The relative importance of major hydrological processes on thaw season 2003 lakewater balances in the Slave River Delta, NWT, Canada, is characterized using water isotope tracers and total suspended sediment (TSS) analyses. A suite of 41 lakes from three previously recognized biogeographical zones—outer delta, mid-delta, and apex—were sampled immediately following the spring melt, during summer, and in the fall of 2003. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions were evaluated in the context of an isotopic framework calculated from 2003 hydroclimatic data. Our analysis reveals that flooding from the Slave River and Great Slave Lake dominated early spring lakewater balances in outer and most mid-delta lakes, as also indicated by elevated TSS concentrations (>0.01 g L⁻¹). In contrast, the input of snowmelt was strongest on all apex and some mid-delta lakes. After the spring melt, all delta lakes underwent heavy-isotope enrichment due to evaporation, although lakes flooded by the Slave River and Great Slave Lake during the spring freshet continued to be more depleted isotopically than those dominated by snowmelt input. The isotopic signatures of lakes with direct connections to the Slave River or Great Slave Lake varied throughout the season in response to the nature of the connection. Our findings provide the basis for identifying three groups of lakes based on the major factors that control their water balances: (1) flood-dominated (n  =  10), (2) evaporation-dominated (n  =  25), and (3) exchange-dominated (n  =  6) lakes. Differentiation of the hydrological processes that influence Slave River Delta lakewater balances is essential for ongoing hydroecological and paleohydrological studies, and ultimately, for teasing apart the relative influences of variations in local climate and Slave River hydrology.

The present extent of glacier ice on Bylot Island, Arctic Canada, is mapped using high-resolution Landsat 7 ETM satellite imagery. The island is 43% ice covered, with 4783 km² of ice. Most ice is centered on the northwest-southeast–trending Byam Martin Mountains, flowing outward as radial valley glaciers and piedmont lobes. The largest glacier is 49 km long and 6.5 km wide. The majority of glaciers terminate on land, but many have margins ending in lakes and two calve into the sea. The late summer snowline, mapped from satellite imagery, is highest along the southern and central parts of the island at about 1050 m, with lower values along the east-northeastern margin of the ice down to about 700 m. These snowline-elevation differences suggest a predominant moisture source from the northeast. Several valley glaciers and piedmont lobes have deformed medial moraines and ice-surface foliation suggesting past surge activity. Ten glaciers are interpreted to be of possible surge-type. The modern extent of glaciers is compared with that of two earlier time intervals. First, we have mapped glacier margins in several areas of Bylot Island from aerial photographs acquired in 1958 and 1961. Secondly, former positions of ice fronts are mapped from moraine systems deposited during the Neoglacial maximum and identified on satellite data. Glaciers have retreated from 0.9 to 1.8 km since the Neoglacial maximum about 120 years ago, with most retreat occurring between 1958/1961 and 2001. Approximately 253 km² or 5% of the 1958/1961 ice-covered area has been lost. Overall, marked glacier retreat has occurred, although a few glaciers, possibly of surge-type, show small readvances. This retreat is consistent with observed climate warming in the Canadian Arctic, especially since the 1960s.

The extreme seasonality of the High Arctic creates very different flowering conditions for plants in areas of early and late snowmelt. Therefore, future reproductive responses to climate change may be dependent on the timing of snowmelt. We combined genetic, morphological, and long-term monitoring data on Dryas from a High Arctic hybrid zone of D. integrifolia and D. octopetala to assess whether climate variation influenced flowering differently in areas of early and late snowmelt, and whether this could have a genetic origin. We found a non-linear relationship between timing of snowmelt and flowering. The duration of the period between snowmelt and the onset of flowering (pre-floration interval) varied with the date of snowmelt. Shorter pre-floration intervals were associated with warmer average temperature during the pre-floration intervals in both early and late melting plots. However, the pre-floration interval was much shorter in early than in late plots at the same average temperature. Likewise, the interannual variation in flower abundance differed between early and late melting plots. Flower abundance was negatively influenced by frost after snowmelt in the year of flowering in early plots. In late plots, flower abundance was positively influenced by the length of the previous growing season. We identified two morpho-types in the study area, but their distribution and genetic differentiation was not related to the snowmelt gradient. We conclude that the different flowering responses found along the snowmelt gradient are a result of environmental variation. Based on our results and projected climatic change for the study area, we predict that the onset of flowering will advance and flower abundance will increase in areas of early snowmelt. In areas of late snowmelt, the onset of flowering will remain unchanged or be delayed and flower abundance will decrease.

The future evolution of Unteraargletscher, a large valley glacier in the Swiss Alps, is assessed for the period 2005 to 2050 using a flowline model. Detailed measurements of surface velocity from the last decade allow us to relate ice flux to glacier thickness and width. Mass balance is calculated using a distributed temperature-index model calibrated with ice volume changes derived independently from comparison of repeated digital elevation models. The model was validated for the period 1961 to 2005 and showed good agreement between the simulated and observed evolution of surface geometry. Regional climate scenarios with seasonal resolution were used to investigate the anticipated response of Unteraargletscher to future climate changes. Three mass balance scenarios were defined, corresponding to 2.5%, 50%, and 97.5% quantiles of a statistical analysis of 16 different climate model results. We present a forecast of the future extent of Unteraargletscher in the next five decades and analyze relevant parameters with respect to the past. The model predicts a retreat of the glacier terminus of 800–1025 m by 2035, and of 1250–2300 m by 2050. The debris coverage of the glacier tongue reduces the retreat rate by a factor of three. The thinning rate increased by 50–183% by 2050 depending on the scenario applied, compared to the period 1997 to 2005.

Glacier fluctuations constitute an important indicator for climate change, both current and past. Glacier mass balance measurements are made to correctly reflect the state of the glacier. Very few studies have been made to study the representability of each point measurement to the average mass balance of a particular glacier, an exercise that requires a large number of measurements. Such studies are rare due to the practical constraints and costs involved in collecting data. On Storglaciären, Sweden, a very dense system of measurements of both distributed winter (∼100 points km⁻²) and summer (∼15 points km⁻²) balance allows a spatial analysis of the mass balance components. The results show that local summer balance values are strongly correlated to the average summer balance value of the glacier. Local winter balance values are also generally well correlated to the average winter balance value, but small areas on the glacier exhibit no correlation. These areas correspond to wind-eroded areas of low accumulation on the glacier. The local net balance values are also well correlated to the average net balance value, indicating that the effect of the summer balance is strong and, at least partly, counter-balancing the spatial inhomogeneities in the local spatial winter balance values. These results show that detailed knowledge of both mass balance components and their spatial variability may be necessary to safely use a sparse system of measurements points. On Storglaciären, this is especially true for winter balance measurements since the spatial snow distribution is highly variable and not necessarily representative of the glacier average at each measurement point. The results strictly apply to Storglaciären but similar effects should be present on most glaciers in a similar setting; the results thus serve as an example of conditions that can be expected on a typical mid-latitude to subarctic glacier.

Although the contribution of methane emission to global change is well recognized, analyses of net methane emissions derived from alpine regions are rare. Therefore, three fen sites differing in water balance and plant community, as well as one dry meadow site, were used to study the importance of soil temperature, water table, and plant biomass as controlling factors for net methane emission in the Eastern Alps, Europe, during a period of 24 months. Average methane emissions during snow-free periods in the fen ranged between 19 and 116 mg CH₄ m⁻² d⁻¹. Mean wintertime emissions were much lower and accounted for 18 to 59% of annual flux. The alpine dry meadow functions as a methane sink during snow-free periods, with mean flux of −2.1 mg CH₄ m⁻² d⁻¹ (2003) and −1.0 mg CH₄ m⁻² d⁻¹ (2004). Seasonal methane emissions of the fen were related to soil temperature and groundwater table. During the snow-free periods the water table was the main control for seasonal methane emission. The net methane flux related to water table was much higher for the distinctly drier year 2003 than for the wetter year 2004. Methane emissions differed diurnally at sites where the water table position was high or very low. The influence of total above-ground plant biomass on methane emission was apparent only for those sites with high water table positions. Seasonal and diurnal methane uptake of the dry meadow was related to soil temperature and water-filled pore space, whereas plant biomass did not significantly influence methane fluxes. Our studies gave evidence that fens in the Eastern Alps act as a source of methane throughout the whole year and that a dry meadow site acts as a net methane sink during snow-free periods.

The availability of seeds and microsites are limiting factors for many plant species of different vegetation types. We have investigated the existence of such limitations in two habitats, an alpine heath and a subalpine birch forest, where abiotic factors are hypothesized to be the main determining factor of plant species distributions. Both habitats are characterized by a short growing season and cold temperatures, and the alpine heath is also constrained by low productivity. A seed addition experiment including six vascular plants, selected by different functional traits and occurrence, showed that seed limitation was an important factor in these habitats. Removal of the aboveground biomass (controlled disturbance) increased germination only for some species. The effect of reindeer presence was found to be of less importance, probably due to low and varying densities of reindeer. To conclude, we found that seed limitation was the most important factor limiting the distribution of our studied species in the two alpine environments.

Fresh snow samples were collected following seven snow accumulation events along an altitudinal transect of the Robertson Valley. This glacierized valley is on the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rockies at the Continental Divide and receives precipitation from both westerly (Pacific) air masses and from easterly (upslope) systems. Snow samples were collected over two winter seasons and were analyzed for δ¹⁸O, revealing altitudinal gradients that ranged from −0.3‰/100 m to 1.8‰/100 m. Five of seven snow events had positive (inverse) isotopic gradients with altitude: ¹⁸O enrichment at higher altitudes. Surface and upper-air meteorological data were analyzed to classify the type of weather systems bringing precipitation to the area for each accumulation event. Three storm classifications were developed: westerly, upslope, and mixed/northwesterly systems. Positive δ¹⁸O-elevation gradients were found under strong westerly and northwesterly flow, when the Robertson Valley acts as a leeward slope, while more conventional negative gradients correspond with upslope flow, when easterly winds make the Robertson Valley a windward snow deposition environment. We interpret the inverse isotopic gradients as evidence of ongoing Rayleigh distillation as westerly systems cross the Continental Divide. Position on the Rayleigh distillation curve had a strong influence on the magnitude of δ¹⁸O-elevation gradients.

On the Beaufort Coastal Plain of northern Alaska, thaw settlement in permafrost soils occurs whenever natural or human disturbances result in an increase in the depth of seasonally thawed soil (the active layer). Knowledge of the potential magnitude of thaw settlement is important for assessing the long-term recovery of disturbed land and for developing rehabilitation plans and performance standards. To address this need, we analyzed thaw strain and thaw depth data from soil cores distributed across the central Beaufort Coastal Plain to evaluate potential thaw settlement at landscape (e.g. terrain units) and regional (e.g. ecodistricts) scales in connection with various oilfield studies during the period 1998–2003.

Mean thaw strain values ranged from 1% for meander active channel deposits to 55% for delta inactive overbank deposits, and tended to be highest at 1–2 m below the ground surface. The potential thaw settlement of specific terrain units was evaluated based on thaw strain of soils and the range of changes in active layer depths typically found after disturbance. Mean estimates for potential thaw settlement for an active layer adjustment to 110 cm after disturbance varied from ∼0 cm in sandy soils with thick active layers associated with meander active channel and overbank deposits to 86 cm in very ice-rich silty soils with thin active layers associated with delta inactive overbank deposits. Potential thaw settlement also varied by region, with values for terrain units tending to be higher in the central Beaufort Coastal Plain (Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk Oilfield areas) than in the western Beaufort Coastal Plain. The highest estimate for potential thaw settlement was 103 cm for delta inactive overbank deposits on the Colville Delta. The thawing of ice wedges will further contribute to thaw settlement and effect local hydrology and topography following thermokarst.

Methanotrophy (the bacterial oxidation of CH₄) in soils is the major biological sink for atmospheric CH₄. Here we present results from a study designed to quantify the role of the physical diffusion barrier to CH₄, through surface soils, as a factor affecting methanotrophy. We used the mountain birch forest–tundra heath ecotone in subarctic northern Sweden as our study system. Our results show that, although CH₄ fluxes were generally low (around −20 µmol m⁻² h⁻¹; a net flux from atmosphere to soil), the two adjacent communities responded in contrasting ways to in situ experimental reduction of the diffusion barrier (removal of the top 50 mm of soil): Uptake increased by 40% in forest soil in association with the removal, whereas it decreased marginally (by 10%) in tundra heath. Investigations of the depth-distribution of CH₄ oxidation in vitro revealed maximum rates at the top of the mineral soil for the forest site, whereas at the tundra heath this was more evenly spread throughout the organic horizon. The contrasting physicochemical properties and methanotroph activity in the organic horizons together explain the contrasting responses to the removal treatment. They also illustrate the potential role of vegetation for methane oxidation around this ecotone, exerted through its influence on the depth and properties of the organic horizons in these subarctic soils.

The pollination ecology of small, short, and two-flowered Pedicularis muscoides subsp. himalayca was studied during its full blooming period in alpine areas of western Sichuan Province, China, part of the putative origin and diversification center of the genus. Pedicularis muscoides subsp. himalayca was nototribically pollinated exclusively by queens of four bumblebee species (Bombus Latr.) that foraged for nectar on flowers in an upright position. Of the four Bombus species, B. friseanus Smith occurred in the highest frequency and was the major pollinator of P. muscoides subsp. himalayca. It comprised 81% of the bumblebees collected on P. muscoides subsp. himalayca. Queen bumblebees stood on the ground while foraging on flowers, which has not previously been reported in other Pedicularis species. During the study period almost all the foragers were confined to the studied subspecies and very occasionally visited other associated blooming species at the study site. The low plant height; outcurved terminal flowers; short-tubed, erostrate, and copiously nectariferous flowers; corolla morphology; and highly synchronized short-blooming period of P. muscoides subsp. himalayca made this plant well adapted to pollination by queen bumblebees within a short growing season. Thus this study provides evidence for coadaptation between Pedicularis and bumblebee pollinators.

Cumulative days of seasonal snow cover at Ben Lawers National Nature Reserve, a mountain site in Scotland, are related to altitude, temperature, and precipitation using a 45-year record from a nearby climate station. Multiple linear regression is used to model interannual variation in snow cover duration as a function of winter mean daily temperature and monthly precipitation. Snow cover duration is closely linked to temperature, while precipitation contributes a positive effect among winters of similar temperature mode. Snow cover duration at mid to upper altitudes (600–900 m) responds most strongly to variation in mean daily temperature. A 1 °C rise in temperature at the station corresponds to a 15-day reduction in snow cover at 130 m and a 33-day reduction at 750 m. The empirical relationship is applied to climate change scenarios from the HadRM3 regional climate model. Under a ‘low’ greenhouse gas emissions scenario, snow cover in the 2050s is projected to be reduced by 93% at 130 m, 43% at 600 m and 21% at 1060 m, while under a ‘high’ emissions scenario these reductions are projected to be 100%, 68%, and 32%, respectively. The potential impact of snow cover reduction on snow-dependent vegetation is modeled. The results suggest a future decline in climax vegetation of international conservation importance.

A c. 5500 year record of peatland development and vegetation change was generated from a core recovered from an Agrostis magellanica peat bog on subantarctic Marion Island, using palynomorph, plant macrofossil, and tephra analyses. Two tephra horizons (both 17 cm thick) were identified and dated to ca. 2900 cal. BP and ca. 1700 cal. BP. Succession of the vegetation as a consequence of tephra deposition, particularly by the pioneer Azorella selago, appears to have been very slow, lasting as long as c. 700 yr. The slow pace of vegetation succession highlights the sensitivity of the indigenous Marion Island flora to environmental change, and the vulnerability to the spread of alien invasive species.