The purpose of this study was to establish a technique for collecting semen from blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva aestiva) and to evaluate the samples that were collected. The massage method is the most common technique used to collect semen in birds and has been proven successful in several psittacine species; however, collection attempts in larger parrots have been unsatisfactory. Six blue-fronted Amazon parrot males, 3 paired with hens and 3 unpaired, were used in this study. The semen collection technique was revised to allow collection from individual birds by a single person. Semen collection was attempted from the 6 parrots on 52–56 occasions, which totaled 330 single attempts. Nineteen ejaculates were collected, and each bird produced at least 1 ejaculate that contained spermatozoa. Large ranges of sample volume (1–15.4 µL), sperm quality (motility  =  2%–60%; live ∶ dead ratio  =  2 ∶ 198 to 185 ∶ 15), sperm concentration (0.79–3.3 × 10⁶ sperm/mL), and contamination rate (0%–100%) were observed. Measured parameters did not appear to be significantly impacted by birds being paired or kept singly. Because of the relatively short acclimation period, the birds appeared to be sexually inactive for the majority of the study. Further research using sexually active birds will be necessary to determine standard spermatological parameters and verify the success of the methodology used here.

The goal of this study was to describe normal electrocardiographic (ECG) patterns and values in conscious helmeted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris). Using 8 clinically healthy birds, 4 males and 4 females, standard bipolar and augmented unipolar limb lead ECGs were recorded. Wave forms were analyzed in all leads at 50 mm/s and at 10 mm  =  1 mV to determine PR, QRS, ST, QT durations; the net QRS complex; and P and T amplitudes. The polarity of each wave form was tabulated in all leads. The mean electrical axis (MEA) for the frontal plane was calculated by using leads II and III. The mean (SD) heart rate calculated from the lead II was 338.4 ± 19.0 beats/min. The P wave was predominantly positive in all leads. The dominant pattern of wave forms of the QRS complexes was RS in leads II, III, and aVF; R in lead I; QR in lead aVR; and qR in lead aVL. The T wave was predominantly positive in leads I, II, III, and aVF. The mean (SD) of the heart MEA was −60.2° ± 24.0°. The ECG values and patterns tabulated in these clinically normal helmeted guinea fowl should provide a means of comparison to aid in the diagnosis of pathologic abnormalities in this species.

The purpose of this study was to examine the validity of albumin determinations in penguin plasma by the bromcresol green (BCG) method and the gold standard of protein electrophoresis (EPH). Plasma from 96 clinically normal and abnormal penguins (Spheniscus species) was analyzed. The 2 methods did not yield equivalent results. The BCG method underestimated the albumin level in samples from normal patients (indicated by a normal albumin ∶ globulin ratio) and overestimated the albumin level in samples from clinically abnormal penguins (indicated by a decreased albumin ∶ globulin ratio). After EPH of plasma samples from clinically abnormal penguins samples was performed to separate albumin and globulin fractions, the globulins exhibited marked binding to the BCG dye. There were no significant differences between the variable reaction of paired serum and plasma samples when using the BCG method. These results demonstrated marked differences in the determination of albumin levels when using the BCG method and protein EPH. They further demonstrated that the BCG method can provide erroneous results, which have the potential to significantly impact clinical diagnosis and treatment. This study confirmed findings from previous studies in other avian species that the BCG method yields unreliable results in avian species. It is our conclusion that the BCG method, commonly found on automated analyzers in commercial laboratories and on point-of-care analyzers, should not be used to determine albumin concentration in avian samples.

Candidiasis frequently affects the oropharynx, esophagus, and crop of juvenile birds with immature immune systems and adult birds that have received long-term antibiotic treatment. Fluconazole is used extensively in human medicine to treat mucosal and invasive candidiasis and has been used in birds; however, there have been few pharmacokinetic studies in avian species to guide safe and effective treatment. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the disposition of fluconazole in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) after single oral dose administration and to determine if therapeutic plasma concentrations could be safely achieved by providing medicated water. Twenty-eight cockatiels were placed into 7 groups and were orally administered a 10 mg/kg fluconazole suspension. Blood samples were collected from each group for plasma fluconazole assay at serial time points. Fluconazole-medicated drinking water was prepared daily and offered to 15 cockatiels at a concentration of 100 mg/L for 8 days. Blood was collected for plasma fluconazole assay at 2 time points on days 3 and 7. When using naïve averaged data in the single-dose study, pharmacokinetic parameters were similar for both compartmental and noncompartmental analyses. The elimination half-life of fluconazole was 19.01 hours, maximum plasma concentration was 4.94 μg/mL, time until maximal concentration was 3.42 hours, and the area under the plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) was 149.28 h × μg/mL. Computer-simulated trough and peak plasma concentrations at steady-state after multiple doses of fluconazole at 10 mg/kg every 24 hours, 10 mg/kg every 48 hours, and 5 mg/kg every 24 hours were approximately 4.1–8.5 μg/mL, 1.2–6.0 μg/mL, and 2.0–4.3 μg/mL, respectively. Mean ± SD plasma fluconazole concentrations for the 100 mg/L medicated water study at 0800 and 1600 hours on day 3 were 3.69 ± 1.22 µg/mL (range, 1.73–5.26 µg/mL) and 4.17 ± 1.96 µg/mL (range, 3.58–7.49 µg/mL), respectively, and at 0800 and 1600 hours on day 7 were 4.78 ± 0.91 µg/mL (range, 2.62–6.11 µg/mL) and 6.61 ± 1.67 µg/mL (range, 3.76–8.78 µg/mL), respectively. Treatment with fluconazole administered orally at a dosage of 5 mg/kg once daily or 10 mg/kg every 48 hours or fluconazole administered in the drinking water at a concentration of 100 mg/L is predicted to maintain plasma concentrations in most cockatiels that exceed the minimum inhibitory concentration of 90% or therapeutic AUC ∶ MIC of most strains of Candida albicans (by using susceptibility data from humans). The compounded oral suspension was stable for 14 days when stored at 5°C (41°F) and protected from light.

A 15-year-old female red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) was evaluated because of dyspnea, anorexia, and coelomic distension. Diagnostic imaging results confirmed severe coelomic effusion and revealed a markedly dilated right ventricle. The diagnosis was right-sided congestive heart failure. Results of measurements of vitamin E, selenium, lead, zinc, and cardiac troponin levels were normal or nondiagnostic. The hawk was treated with furosemide, antifungal and antimicrobial agents, and supplemental fluids and oxygen, but euthanasia was elected because of the poor prognosis and the practical difficulties associated with intensive case management. To our knowledge, this is the first described case of cardiomyopathy and congestive heart failure in a captive red-tailed hawk.

An adult female red-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandieae) was presented for necropsy and histopathologic evaluation. The bird had died after exhibiting lameness, weight loss, respiratory signs, and hemoptysis. Postmortem radiographs revealed lesions in the diaphysis of the left femur and soft-tissue opacities in the lungs. At necropsy, the muscles of the left femur were pale and swollen, white-yellow small nodules were visible in lungs and air sacs, and the liver and other coelomic organs appeared pale. On histologic examination, areas of necrosis in the lungs were extensively infiltrated with acid-fast positive bacilli surrounded by macrophages, epithelioid cells, and giant cells. Acid-fast bacilli were also present in the left leg muscle and in granulomas in the liver, kidneys, and intestine. Fungal hyphae associated with a Splendore-Hoeppli phenomenon were visible in the left leg muscle. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction testing performed on muscle samples. Results were indicative of infection with M tuberculosis complicated by mycotic myositis. The disease in avian species is of zoonotic importance, and infected birds may be a useful sentinel for human infection.

Mute swans (Cygnus olor), whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus), and mixed-breed domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus) were presented for necrotic lesions on the feet, eyelids, and beak. Individuals from the same collection of birds had developed identical lesions during March–September of each of the previous 3 years. Vesicular and necrotic dermatitis involved only nonfeathered and nonpigmented areas of the integument. No abnormal clinical signs were seen on either carnivorous species or birds with pigmented skin from the same collection. The enclosure that housed the birds had been planted with perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne) 3 years previously. Based on the pathologic features and anatomic location of the lesions, the seasonal occurrence, the vegetation history of the enclosure, and the feeding behavior of the affected species, vesicular dermatitis resulting from photosensitization was the presumptive diagnosis. All affected birds recovered completely after the birds were removed from the enclosure, and no further clinical signs have been reported.

You hear about them all the time lately—exotic pets are constantly in the news—on TV, the radio, and in the newspaper. Monstrously large, non-native Burmese pythons are being released into the Everglades, threatening native species. Non-indigenous Quaker parrots have escaped captivity and are now breeding so successfully outdoors in the Northeast that they have become a menace, nesting on power lines and disturbing electrical service. Seemingly docile large wildcats, raised captively in preserves, suddenly turn on their caretakers with sometimes fatal consequences. Human-like primates, bottle fed from birth in people's homes, like child substitutes, suddenly snap and inflict severe injury on their human family members. All of these unfortunate stories make for sensational news; yet what they really should make us think about is whether we should keep these exotic animals as pets, at all. Some may argue that if exotic animals were outlawed as pets, people would keep them, anyway, and if they were illegally owned, these animals might receive inferior to no medical care. Others think that owning exotic species poses a potential threat to the health and safety of both humans and domestic pets that is too great. There are definitely valid points on both sides. To address this fundamental question about keeping exotic animals as pets, I have invited 7 individuals from different geographic locations who treat a variety of species every day in a variety of settings—zoos, private veterinary practice, and even a mix of both—to participate. Participants are Jose Biascoechea, DVM, Birds and Exotics Animal Care, Mount Pleasant, SC, USA; Laura Brazelton, DVM, Summertree Animal & Bird Clinic, Dallas, TX, USA; Orlando Figueroa-Diaz, DVM, MS, Dipl ABVP (Avian), Lake Howell Animal Clinic, Maitland, FL, USA; Eric Klaphake, DVM, Dipl ACZM, Dipl ABVP (Avian), Animal Medical Center, Bozeman, MT, USA; Attila Molnar, DVM, Dipl ABVP (Avian), All Animals Medical Center, Calabasas, CA, USA; Sam Rivera, DVM, MS, Dipl ABVP (Avian), Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA; and Amy B. Worell, DVM, Dipl ABVP (Avian), All Pets Medical Centre, West Hills, CA, USA. I hope that hearing their different perspectives will all make us consider the pros and cons of keeping captive the extraordinary exotic species we all treat.