Inclusion body hepatitis in falcons is caused by a herpesvirus designated Falconid HV-1. This herpesvirus and other herpesviruses affecting birds of prey have not been assigned to a genus and include inclusion body herpesvirus hepatitis in eagles (Accipitrid HV-1) and inclusion body herpesvirus hepatitis in owls (Strigid HV-1). Herpesvirus infections have been diagnosed in both captive and free-living raptors across Europe, North America, and Asia in different species of the family Falconidae. Herpesviruses affecting owls and falcons have been found to be antigenically similar to pigeon herpesvirus (Columbid HV-1) and distinct from other avian herpesviruses. When the herpesvirus isolates from owls, falcons, and pigeons were compared by sequencing a fragment of the herpes viral DNA polymerase gene from those birds naturally infected with the virus, the sequences from these 3 sources were found to be nearly identical. The authors of this study concluded that the Falconid HV-1, Strigid HV-1, and Columbid HV-1 were the same virus. Furthermore, the authors also proposed that the virus therefore be referred to as Columbid HV-1 (CoHV-1), because pigeons may be responsible for the transmission of the virus to birds of prey. Pigeons are often carriers of the virus without showing any clinical signs. It has long been suspected that raptors may contract the infection by the ingestion of infected pigeons. Some studies have suggested that falcons may not contract the infection through the oral route by ingesting carrier pigeons, but through the ocular or nasal route. Inclusion body herpesvirus hepatitis is a frequently diagnosed disease in the captive falcon population used for falconry, racing, and breeding in the Middle East, and it seems to be associated with the extensive use of pigeons for training and as a food item. This paper reviews the clinical and pathological findings in falcons affected by inclusion body herpesvirus hepatitis in the Middle East.

Hypercholesterolemia is common in captive Psittaciformes. A point-of-care cholesterol analyzer would be useful to monitor hypercholesterolemia in psittacine birds. We compare a point-of-care cholesterol analyzer (PTS-Diagnostics CardioChek) with a reference laboratory analyzer (Roche Cobas c501) and provide initial assessment of precision and accuracy. A prospective method comparison study was designed to compare the CardioChek and Cobas c501 by assessment of clinical and analytical agreement using Passing-Bablock regression analysis and difference plots. Initial accuracy was assessed by running cholesterol standards, and initial precision was assessed by calculating between-run coefficient of variation on samples from selected birds. A total of 42 psittacine birds were sampled. No significant constant bias was found between the Cobas and CardioChek. However, a significant negative proportional bias was evident, suggesting that the point-of-care analyzer tended to underestimate cholesterol values. Lipemia and hemolysis had strong effects on increasing bias. Hematocrit, glucose level, and genus had no significant impact on bias, controlling for lipemia and hemolysis. Accuracy of the CardioCheck was suboptimal to that of the Cobas, but precision was good. When defining hypercholesterolemia as >8 mmol/L (309 mg/dL), the CardioChek had a sensitivity of 57% and specificity of 96%. There was neither analytical nor clinical agreement between the CardioChek and Cobas c501. Values obtained from the CardioChek cannot be used to determine or monitor hypercholesterolemia in parrots in the absence of analyzer-specific reference intervals.

Mynahs are popular pet and aviary birds. Captive mynahs are prone to metabolic disorders, such as obesity, hepatic lipidosis, and atherosclerosis, and determination of a plasma biochemical reference interval is essential for diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of these disorders. To establish reference intervals for the lipoprotein panel and plasma activity of liver enzymes in common mynahs (Acridotheres tristis), glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, high and low density lipoprotein concentrations, and activities of aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transferase, and lactate dehydrogenase were measured in 56 adult healthy individuals. The data were grouped according to sex and body weight. For all variables, no significant differences were found between male and female mynahs, and body weight had no effect on lipoprotein fractions. Our results provide a reliable reference interval for some blood biochemical values in healthy common mynahs that could be useful for diagnosing and monitoring disease problems.

We determined the prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci genotypes in asymptomatic and symptomatic birds in northeast Iran. Samples were collected from 11 species of Psittaciformes and 1 species of Columbiformes from 2015 to 2016. Choanal cleft and cloacal swab samples, fresh fecal samples, and/or tissue samples of 70 symptomatic and 130 asymptomatic birds were collected and tested by molecular detection (nested polymerase chain reaction [PCR] testing specific for C psittaci). Results showed C psittaci was detected in 37 (18.5%) of 200 birds (18/37 symptomatic and 19/37 asymptomatic birds) by nested PCR assay. Of the PCR-positive samples, 14 products were positive for oligonucleotide sets CTU/CTL by a second PCR assay and genotyped by outer membrane protein A (ompA) gene sequencing. Of the 10 samples positive for genotype A (cockatiels [Nymphicus hollandicus, n = 5], ring-necked parakeet [Psittacula krameri, n = 2], African gray parrot [Psittacus erithacus, n = 3]), 6 samples were from asymptomatic and 4 from symptomatic birds. Genotype B was observed in 3 samples from symptomatic birds (P krameri [n = 2], pigeon [Columba livia, n = 1]), and provisional genotype I was detected in one symptomatic cockatiel. These findings revealed the importance of monitoring imported asymptomatic birds in developing countries, especially the Middle East, where there is no systematic monitoring. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the detection of C psittaci provisional genotype I in cockatiels.

To compare the bending strength of a locking plate (LP), nonlocking plate (NLP), and an external skeletal fixator intramedullary pin (ESF-IM) tie-in fixation applied by a dorsal approach in an avian humerus fracture model, 5 left humeri obtained from pigeon (Columba livia) cadavers were randomly assigned to each repair technique (n = 15). The ESF-IM group was repaired with a 0.062-inch intramedullary pin tied-in with two 0.035-inch positive profile transfixation pins using acrylic filled plastic tubing. The LP group was repaired with a dorsally applied titanium 1.6-mm screw 7-hole locking plate (1 bicortical and 2 monocortical screws in each segment). The NLP group was repaired with a dorsally applied 6-hole stainless steel 1.5-mm dynamic compression plate (all bicortical screws). All constructs were applied before complete ostectomy to allow perfect reconstruction. Constructs were cyclically tested nondestructively for 1000 cycles in four-point bending before being tested to failure. Outcome measures included stiffness, strength, and strain energy. All specimens cycled without failure. The ESF-IM specimens were significantly stiffer and stronger than the plated repair groups. Plated constructs had significantly higher strain energies than ESF-IM. LP and NLP were of equal stiffness, strength, and strain energies. This study demonstrated that bending biomechanical properties of the ESF-IM configuration were superior to those of the dorsal plate fixation. Exact properties of fixation required to facilitate avian fracture healing are largely unknown. Further study, including assessments of optimal plate position and configuration, and torsional and in vivo studies in avian species are warranted.

Avian patients are presented commonly to veterinarians for preventive and disease-induced care. Physical examinations commonly are used to assess the overall patient, but this requires manual restraint, which often leads to increased stress and subsequent deleterious effects. To develop a noninvasive evaluation of the stress response in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus), we evaluated the behavior of 26 juvenile cockatiels during their normal daily routine and after an acute stressful event (manual restraint and physical examination). Nonstressed behavior budgets were established by performing quantitative ethograms using 10-minute focal animal sampling methods with point samples recorded every 5 seconds. The ethograms then were repeated after a >10-minute restraint period for physical examination and venipuncture. Plasma corticosterone levels at baseline (<3 minutes) and after stress (>10 minutes) were compared to accompanying behaviors. Plasma corticosterone levels significantly increased after restraint. Overall, reactionary behaviors and inactivity increased, while locomotion, feeding, interaction with the environment, and displays of aggression decreased in the stressed birds. Maintenance behaviors were not significantly different before and after restraint, but the subjective character changed, with stressed birds displaying an increase in behaviors that were short in duration with minimal decrease in vigilance. Our results will be helpful to develop a method of quantifying stress in companion avian patients by using behavioral indicators. However, further study into specific behaviors of significance is needed.

We evaluated the applicability of a rebound tonometer (TonoVet) in pigeon eyes and established normal reference intraocular pressure (IOP) values in healthy pigeons; 20 eyes of euthanized pigeons were used for calibration of the TonoVet and 48 eyes of 24 adult pigeons were used for measurement of reference IOP. First, IOP of pigeon eyes ex vivo were measured using the ‘d’ and the ‘p’ modes of the TonoVet and compared to manometric IOP values from 5 to 80 mm Hg. Then, to establish normal reference values, IOP was measured from clinically normal pigeons in vivo. The ‘d’ and the ‘p’ modes of the TonoVet showed a strong linear correlation with the manometric IOP (R² = .996 and .991, respectively). The obtained regression formulas were: y₁ = 0.439x + 2.059 and y₂ = 0.330x – 0.673, respectively (y₁, ‘d’ mode of TonoVet; y₂, ‘p’ mode of TonoVet; x, manometric IOP). The ‘d’ and the ‘p’ modes consistently measured one-half and one-third of the actual IOP, respectively. Therefore, the formula obtained through the ‘d’ mode was applied to obtain reference values. The calibrated IOP of normal pigeon eyes was 19.5 ± 4.4 mm Hg. The actual IOP could be calculated using the presented formula. Considering the limitations of the ‘p’ mode, use of the ‘d’ mode is more appropriate. Therefore, the TonoVet rebound tonometry under the ‘d’ mode is a reliable method for measuring IOP in pigeons.

Radiographs are an important diagnostic tool available in wildlife hospitals to evaluate the size of the avian heart. Despite the large variety wild birds in the Iberian peninsula, clinical studies addressing these species are lacking. To establish reference values for cardiac size in the Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata), ventrodorsal radiographs of 20 healthy birds were obtained, and the width of the cardiac silhouette, sternum, thorax, coracoid, and hepatic silhouette were measured. The ratios between cardiac width and other mentioned indices were calculated. Results showed that cardiac silhouette width should occupy 81%–93% of sternal width, 48%–57% of thoracic width, and 506%–673% of coracoid width. The cardiac silhouette width was strongly correlated with sternal and thoracic widths. A moderate correlation was found between the width of the heart and the width of the coracoid. No significant correlation was found between width of the cardiac silhouette and the hepatic silhouette. These results support that sternal and thoracic widths should be used preferentially when evaluating the width of the cardiac silhouette in this species. The values obtained in this study can be used as a reference for normal cardiac size when evaluating radiographs of Bonelli's eagles.

An approximately 42-year-old, wild-caught, red-crowned Amazon parrot (Amazona viridigenalis) was evaluated for a subcutaneous mass to the right of the keel. Cytologic examination of a fine needle aspirate of the mass were suggestive of granulomatous inflammation. The mass was surgically excised, and the parrot was treated with oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Histologically, the mass was diagnosed as a teratoma with stratified squamous epithelial and neuroectodermal components. Tumor cells extended to surgical margins. Two years later, the neoplasm recurred, with regrowth of only the neuroectodermal component. The neoplasm was again removed surgically, but it recurred again 14 months later, necessitating a third surgery. Histopathologic examination confirmed recurrence of the original neoplasm in both instances, with incomplete margins on both excisions.

A 9-year-old female rose-breasted cockatoo (Eolophus roseicapilla) was presented for a humeral fracture. At presentation, the bird was severely lethargic and obese. On physical examination, an open right humeral fracture, healed left ulnar fracture, and intertarsal joint swelling were present. Results of hematologic testing and biochemical analysis revealed severe leukocytosis with heterophilia and increased creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase activities consistent with musculoskeletal lesions. Radiographs confirmed a right humeral fracture and showed severe polyostotic lytic and expansile lesions of the appendicular skeleton, as well as an enlarged hepatic silhouette. Surgical repair of the fracture was attempted, but the bird died during the procedure. Postmortem examination revealed severe bone deformities involving the fractured humerus, both ulnas, and the left tibiotarsus. Histologic findings were consistent with multiple intraosseous lipomas of the long bones and severe hepatic lipidosis. To our knowledge, this is the first report of multiple intraosseous lipomas in a bird.

Decomposed granite is a material commonly used in zoos as a base for flamingo exhibits. In 2012, the artificial turf over the decomposed granite in the Fort Worth Zoo flamingo exhibit was removed and pressure washed, the granite was replaced, and the turf was then restretched in place. Approximately 8 months later, 3 lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) showed signs of lethargy and hematochezia. Results of physical examination revealed poor body condition in all birds, with variable hematologic abnormalities, including anemia, hypoproteinemia, and electrolyte disturbances. Radiographs of birds showed large amounts of radiopaque material in the ventriculus and dilated intestinal loops. Two birds died either during treatment or surgery, and 1 bird was euthanatized. Postmortem examination of all 3 birds revealed large amounts of fine, granite-like material in the ventriculus and intestines, severe congestion of intestinal mucosa, and obstruction of intestinal lumen by caseous plugs surrounded by fecal material. Microscopic evaluation of the material removed from the ventriculus showed birefringent crystals that corresponded to microscopic silica grains, consistent with the decomposed granite from the exhibit. Histologic examination of tissues showed marked chronic erosive colitis, mild erosive proventriculitis, and lesions in the muscular layer of the ventriculus. Subsequently, 82 remaining flamingos in the flock were radiographed. Results showed the same material in the ventriculus of most birds, but no intestinal obstructions were identified. Different treatment techniques were attempted unsuccessfully to remove the material from the flamingos that had the largest amount of decomposed granite in their gastrointestinal tracts. Ultimately, all birds were treated with oral gastrointestinal protectants, adsorbents, laxatives, and lubricants, along with antibiotics administered in drinking water. No further mortalities occurred once medical treatments were implemented.

Evidence suggests that wintering populations of long-tailed ducks along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts are in decline, but little is known about wintering populations on Lake Michigan. Researchers seek answers to basic questions regarding habitat use and migration patterns (temporal and spatial) of long-tailed ducks that winter on Lake Michigan, by using surgically implanted satellite transmitters. The processes of locating the birds, capturing and implanting satellite transmitters, and interpreting the results were challenging, and efforts relied on dedicated researchers, veterinarians, resource managers, and many volunteers.