The coccidian parasite Choleoeimeria pogonae infests the biliary ducts and gallbladder of the central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). Endogenous C. pogonae development occurs in the epithelium of the gallbladder and bile ducts, leading to significant tissue injury. To determine whether bile composition in the gallbladder was disrupted by the parasite, bile samples were collected from one normal and one C. pogonae–infected central bearded dragon. Bile acid species were identified and quantified with liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy. Tauroallochoic acid was the predominant bile acid (82.2%) in the normal bearded dragon, whereas the deconjugated allocholic acid was the predominant bile acid (40.1%) in the bearded dragon with C. pogonae. Taurine conjugation inhibits calcium precipitation in bile and bile acid–mediated ductal epithelial cytotoxicity. The shift in bile acid content identified in the C. pogonae infected bearded dragon may contribute to cholelithiasis and mucosal damage.

A 22-yr-old male sulcata tortoise (Centrochelys sulcata) presented to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital at Louisiana State University for acute swelling around the eyes, lethargy, and serous oculonasal discharge. Upon physical exam, the patient had severe bilateral chemosis, was unable to open his eyes, and was dehydrated. Because of a clinical suspicion of bacterial upper respiratory infection, the patient was started on antibiotics, an anti-inflammatory, and fluid therapy. It was also hospitalized for further diagnostics and treatment. The patient was anesthetized for bloodwork, microbiological assays, diagnostic imaging, and an ophthalmic exam. During hospitalization, fluid therapy, parenteral antibiotic administration, nebulization, esophagostomy tube placement, and bilateral subpalpebral lavage system (SPLS) placement were performed. The most significant diagnostic findings were bilateral anterior uveitis and bilateral conjunctivitis. The patient was discharged 3 days following placement of the SPLS. On re-evaluation 11 days later, the patient showed marked clinical improvement and the SPLS were removed. Subpalpebral lavage systems proved to be an effective technique for treating uveitis in this animal. Without an SPLS, topical eye medications can be difficult or impossible to administer to large tortoises.

A 3-yr-old, female, captive Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) presented with a significant Lernaea infestation. The animal had a history of poor husbandry prior to being rescued by the current owner. The axolotl was anesthetized using a buffered 0.15% tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) immersion bath and then moved to a buffered 0.1% MS-222 bath for maintenance. The adult anchor worms were removed manually under anesthesia. Following recovery, the axolotl enclosure was treated with 0.1 mg/L lufenuron, which was added to the water once a week for five treatments. Six months following treatment there has been no recurrence of the Lernaea infestation. This is the first documentation of successful treatment of Lernaea in the Mexican axolotl using lufenuron.

A 4 yr old, female bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was presented after a 2 day history of lethargy and inappetence. On physical examination, the patient was quiet, alert, and responsive, with pale mucous membranes and coelomic distention. Initial diagnostics revealed a severe anemia (packed cell volume [PCV], 3%) and hypoproteinemia (total solids [TS], 30 g/L [3 g/dl]). Full-body radiographs revealed decreased coelomic detail suggestive of coelomic effusion. Due to the life-threatening anemia, a whole blood transfusion (WBT) was performed using a bearded dragon (donor A). On day 2, coelomic ultrasound revealed a large volume of effusion and numerous follicles. Coelomic fluid cytology was consistent with acute hemorrhage and egg yolk coelomitis. On day 3, two allogeneic WBTs, each from a different donor animal (donors B and C), were administrated via an intraosseous catheter. The PCV and TS increased to 8% and 38 g/L (3.8 g/dl), respectively. On day 5 the PCV/TS decreased to 7% and 28 g/L (2.8 g/dl), respectively. Due to the suspicion of active hemorrhage, an exploratory coeliotomy was elected. An intraoperative WBT (from donor B) was administrated. The source of hemorrhage was found to originate from the left ovarian pedicle. A final WBT was administrated postoperatively (from donor A). On day 6, the PCV/TS had increased to 17% and 30 g/L (93 g/dl), respectively. Three weeks later, the patient was alert and responsive and the PCV/TS had risen to 30% and 52 g/L (5.2 g/dl), respectively. This is the first report describing the successful administration of five WBTs from several different donors over a short period of time in a bearded dragon with hemocoelom and marked anemia.

Ophidiomycosis, an infectious disease of snakes caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, is known to cause skin lesions and, in some cases, deeper infections, and even death. It has been documented in captive snakes worldwide and in free-ranging snakes in the United States and Europe. Diagnostic limitations have impeded characterization of the epidemiology of this disease and subsequent efforts to improve clinical care and conservation outcomes. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the efficacy of qPCR of snake sheds as a noninvasive diagnostic tool for the detection of O. ophidiicola, compared to swabs prior to and following the shed. We tested shed pieces from grossly observed skin lesions or mid body sections if disease was not obvious, and matched skin swabs from 68 animals using a qPCR assay specific for O. ophidiicola. There was nearly complete agreement between the qPCR results of sheds and swabs (Cohen's kappa = 0.97) and sheds were 100% sensitive and 97% specific for apparent ophidiomycosis, with a 97% negative predictive value and a 100% positive predictive value. Our results indicate that qPCR of snake sheds is a reliable detection method for the presence of O. ophidiicola, as this technique has high agreement with peri-ecdysis skin swabbing. Although this technique can be used for noninvasive pathogen detection in captive individuals with known histories, results from snake sheds from free-ranging animals with no knowledge of associated clinical signs should be interpreted with caution and additional surveillance is necessary in these cases.

The importance of calcium and phosphorus for the health of reptiles is well known. Proper calcium intake is critical for the prevention of nutritional diseases such as nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSHP); however, the role magnesium may play in this disease is unknown. Magnesium is the second most abundant intracellular cation in the body and has influence on the function of vitamin D and parathyroid hormone. Chelonians are one of the most common companion reptile groups presenting for NSHP. The purpose of this study was to establish reference intervals for complete blood counts, total calcium, total magnesium, and phosphorus. Peripheral blood was collected in November in the northern hemisphere on a single day from 40 captive red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria). Hematologic and biochemistry assessment included packed cell volume, a blood smear for white blood cell slide estimate and differential count, and plasma concentrations of total calcium, total magnesium, and phosphorus. There was no correlation between total calcium and total magnesium. This population of red-footed tortoises appeared to be predominantly lymphocytic in the season in which samples were collected, and may have also had an absolute basophilia. This is the first study to determine reference intervals for complete blood counts and select biochemistry parameters of a uniform cohort of red-footed tortoises. These values may aid in clinical management and monitoring of red-footed tortoises presenting for veterinary care.

Crocodilians often require chemical immobilization for safe restraint and veterinary procedures, but there is a paucity of anesthetic studies for these species. The aim of this study was to compare the ability of ketamine (5 mg/kg) versus alfaxalone (5 mg/kg), in combination with dexmedetomidine (50 µg/kg) and midazolam (1 mg/kg) (KDM, ADM), to provide a loss of reflexes and safe orotracheal intubation without producing apnea in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Six 22-month-old captive-hatched American alligators (4.75 ± 0.48 kg and body length of 111.1 ± 9.9 cm) were administered KDM and ADM in the lateral occipital venous sinus in a randomized, crossover design with a 72–80 h washout period between treatments. Physiologic parameters (heart rate, respiratory rate, esophageal and cloacal temperatures, end-tidal CO₂) and reflexes (palpebral, cloacal, corneal, righting, withdrawal) were serially assessed throughout the anesthetic episode. Alligators were intubated, and assisted ventilation was provided to apneic animals. Intubation was safely performed within 10 min of administration of ADM and KDM. Respiratory rate was the only physiological parameter to differ between ADM and KDM. The majority (5/6, 83.3%) of alligators administered KDM maintained spontaneous ventilation (P = 0.016) and withdrawal reflexes (P = 0.031), and all alligators (6/6, 100%) given ADM became apneic and lost their withdrawal reflexes in all four limbs. Palpebral, cloacal, and righting reflexes were consistently lost in all animals with both combinations. Recovery time ranged from 5 to 35 min following administration of the reversal agents. Although KDM and ADM both permitted orotracheal intubation, KDM produced less apnea and a lighter plane of anesthesia compared to ADM.

A variety of neurological disorders have been reported in reptiles, but evaluation of a reptile patient with suspected neurological disease can be challenging. The feasibility of performing and interpreting neurological examinations may be affected by a number of factors, including species, body temperature, individual temperament, and stress levels. The aims of this study were to determine whether standard neurological examinations used in other companion animal species could be adapted for use in lizards to establish a reference for healthy animals. The inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) and leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) were selected as two of the most commonly presented pet lizard species. Thirty adult leopard geckos and 30 juvenile bearded dragons were provided by a private breeder as subjects for the study. A complete physical examination was performed on each animal, followed by a standardized neurological examination. Postural reactions, spinal reflexes, and cranial nerve testing were scored as absent, reduced, or present. Certain responses, such as the menace response and response to sound, were consistently absent in all animals, whereas parameters such as jaw tone and righting reflex were present in all animals. Some variation was also observed in response to other tests such as tactile placing and tail pinch. It is hoped that these findings can help clinicians prioritize tests that can be easily performed with minimal stress, and give consistent results in a healthy lizard.

Herein we report the high mortality of larval Hurter's spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus hurterii) tadpoles when fed dry powdered feeds. The evidence implies that dry powders remain suspended in the water column where they enter and clog the filtering apparatus of the tadpoles. When the same foods were wetted to a paste and dropped into the aquaria as a moist pellet, the ration fell directly to the substrate and did not become suspended in the water column. Mortalities of tadpoles fed dry powdered rations were severe, whereas mortalities when fed wetted feed were inconsequential. We recommend that that rations made of ground or powdered components not be fed unless first wetted. Further, we speculate that sediment and siltation of natural waters may contribute to amphibian losses via the same mechanism.

Testudinid herpesviruses (TeHVs) and ranaviruses are important pathogens of tortoises, but no treatments are available. Lysine may inhibit herpesvirus (HV) replication, although its effectivity has been questioned. Lactoferrin has antiviral activity against a range of viruses by inhibiting adsorption to cells. Media were supplemented with 6.25–10 mg/ml lysine and 0.625–1 mg/ml lactoferrin, individually or combined, and the effects measured against the replication of TeHV-1, TeHV-3, or a ranavirus in Terrapene heart cells (TH-1). Cytotoxicity testing was also carried out with the same concentrations. Lysine alone inhibited cell growth after 24 and 48 h, whereas lactoferrin only reduced cell growth after 24 h. TeHV-1 titers were only reduced by the addition of a combination of 10 mg/ml lysine and 1 mg/ml lactoferrin after 48 h (43.8% reduction) and by 10 mg/ml lysine (82.2% reduction). The same concentration of the combined substances led to an average reduction in TeHV-3 titers of 43.8% after 24 h and 68.4% after 48 h, respectively, while 10 mg/ml lysine led to an average reduction of 92.5% after 48 h. Lactoferrin alone did not reduce HV titers. Both concentrations of the combined substances led to titer reductions of the ranavirus (86.7–96.8%), and testing of the individual substances led to a reduction of 97.6% after 48 h with 10 mg/ml lysine and of 82.2% after 24 h with 1 mg/ml lactoferrin.