We describe a new species of the Taeniophallus occipitalis group from eastern Amazonia, Brazil. This species appears to be closely related to T. occipitalis from which it differs in color pattern, hemipenial morphology, and number of ventral and subcaudal scales. Characters that distinguish the new species from all other species of Taeniophallus are the following: (1) 15-15-15 or 15-15-13 rows of dorsal scales; (2) eight supralabials; (3) nine infralabials; (4) 168–192 ventral scales; (5) 64–86 subcaudal scales; and (6) distinctive hemipenial morphology (e.g., presence of a large spine in medium-basal region on the asulcate side of the organ). Taeniophallus occipitalis exhibits a wide variety of geographically restricted color patterns, as well as variation in scale counts, making the study of this snake confusing, warranting more study.

Two species of Japanese toads, Bufo japonicus formosus and Bufo torrenticola, were identified in a mountain stream using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and mitochondrial (mt) DNA sequencing techniques. We detected RAPD fragments and mtDNA sequences specific for each species collected from allopatric areas. These molecular data indicated that most of the toads collected from their sympatric areas in a mountain stream in central Japan were backcross hybrids to B. torrenticola, even though they possessed the mtDNA of B. j. formosus. Directional introgression probably occurred between the males of B. torrenticola and females possessing the mtDNA of B. j. formosus, resulting from B. j. formosus being compelled to spawn in stream side pools, especially during the initial period of contact between the two species. Furthermore, most of the hybrid individuals probably backcrossed to the numerically predominant B. torrenticola. Such conditions might have resulted from recent and continuous flooding which created changes in the topography of the Bufo spawning habitat.

We completed a taxonomic revision for the New Zealand Copper Skink (Cyclodina aenea) species complex using morphological and molecular data. Two new species are described on the basis of several morphological characteristics, with the specific status of each species supported by mitochondrial sequence data (ND2). We also redescribe C. aenea. One of the new species is restricted to the Poor Knights Islands, whereas the distribution of the other new species is limited to northernmost region of Northland. Both new species exhibit significant genetic divergence from C. aenea (∼13.5% sequence divergence), indicating that each species has evolved in isolation from C. aenea for a substantial period of time.

According to the venom-metering hypothesis, snakes have the cognitive (decision-making) capacity to control, or meter, how much venom is ejected from the fangs. Critics of venom metering have argued, largely from absence of evidence, that differential venom gland contraction in snakes is trivial or nonexistent. To address this criticism, we videotaped the defensive bites of Naja nigricollis nigricollis during routine venom extractions. Mean duration of venom flow during a single pulse from a fang, when biting (0.35 sec) was significantly longer than that reported previously for spitting (0.066 sec). Moreover, mean mass of venom expended per pulse from a fang during biting (juveniles: 14.2 mg; adults: 188 mg) significantly exceeded that reported for spitting (1.85 mg). During a single bite, both juveniles and adults delivered venom via pulses that were single, multiple (each associated with a jaw contraction), unilateral (from one fang), or bilateral (from both fangs more or less simultaneously). Although juveniles and adults exhibited similar venom flow duration, adults delivered significantly more venom during biting at significantly greater rates of venom flow through the fang. Because venom gland contraction provides the only propulsive force for venom expulsion, our results confirm that N. n. nigricollis meters larger quantities of venom during biting than spitting via differential venom gland contraction. Because of the high degree of functional convergence between venom delivery systems of elapids (including Spitting Cobras) and viperids (the other large family of venomous snakes), the capacity for differential venom gland contraction may be widespread among snakes.

Understanding seasonal variation in reproductive investment is crucial to explore life-history strategies of a given species. We measured the timing of reproduction and the reproductive output of recently captured females to test whether the conclusions on seasonal shifts of reproductive investment made in the laboratory can apply to field populations in a lacertid lizard Takydromus septentrionalis. Female T. septentrionalis started producing eggs in April and ceased reproduction in August. During the midreproductive season (May to July), more than 60% of field-captured females were gravid. The females produced more eggs and thus had heavier total egg mass in May than in July, although egg mass and hatchling size did not vary seasonally. The seasonal variation in clutch size did not induce seasonal shifts in trade-offs between clutch size and egg size. In general, these results are largely consistent with data collected in the laboratory and support the conclusion of previous studies in this species that seasonal shifts in reproductive output are determined ultimately by natural selection. However, Relative Clutch Mass (RCM) of recently captured females was greater than that of females in captivity, which suggests that RCMs could be affected noticeably by proximate factors. Therefore, when explaining the evolutionary strategies of an organism based on intraspecific comparisons of RCMs, investigators should measure them in a common-garden environment so as to control the potential influence of environmental factors.

Some studies have described a negative effect of toe clipping on return rates of marked anurans, but the return rate is limited in that it does not account for heterogeneity of capture probabilities. We used open population mark-recapture models to estimate both apparent survival (φ) and the recapture probability (p) of two treefrog species individually marked by clipping 2–4 toes. We used information-theoretic model selection to examine the effect of toe clipping on survival while accounting for variation in capture probability. The model selection results indicate strong support for an effect of toe clipping on survival of Green Treefrogs (Hyla cinerea) and only limited support for an effect of toe clipping on capture probability. We estimate there was a mean absolute decrease in survival of 5.02% and 11.16% for Green Treefrogs with three and four toes removed, respectively, compared to individuals with just two toes removed. Results for Squirrel Treefrogs (Hyla squirella) indicate little support for an effect of toe clipping on survival but may indicate some support for a negative effect on capture probability. We believe that the return rate alone should not be used to examine survival of marked animals because constant capture probability must be assumed, and our examples demonstrate how capture probability may vary over time and among groups. Mark-recapture models provide a method for estimating the effect of toe clipping on anuran survival in situations where unique marks are applied.

We studied the sexual dimorphism, feeding habits, reproductive biology, and seasonal activity of the snake Philodryas patagoniensis in northeastern Argentina, where this species is the most abundant snake. There were differences in snout–vent length, tail length, and scale counts between adult males and females. Juveniles showed significant sexual dimorphism in tail length and scale counts. A total of 92 prey items was recorded from 184 specimens, with reptiles being the most common prey (58%) and Cercosaura schreibersii the most frequent individual prey item (26%). However, amphibians (15%), mammals (10%), and birds (4%) were taken occasionally. We found evidence of an ontogenetic diet shift because adults included endothermic prey. The female reproductive cycle was seasonal, and clutch size was positively correlated with female SVL. Philodryas patagoniensis was active throughout the year but significantly less so in winter and more so in spring. The great abundance of P. patagoniensis in South America may be influenced by its foraging and reproductive plasticity, feeding frequency, and the prey availability and abundance. Therefore, we suggest that this species may be an important predator in South American ecosystems.

Crossodactylus bokermanni is a spinythumb frog known only from the type locality and categorized as Endangered or Vulnerable in different red lists. The examination of many unidentified specimens collected in the range of the Serra do Espinhaço, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, revealed that C. bokermanni has a wider distributional range than previously reported. Nontopotypic specimens could not be referred to C. bokermanni earlier because of the confused taxonomy of the genus. A detailed comparative diagnosis is presented, and morphological and acoustical variations are characterized to accurately determine the species limits of C. bokermanni. Previous studies presenting evidence for the decline of the topotypic populations of C. bokermanni are not supported by the available literature, museum collections, and recently collected field data. The conservation status of this species needs to be revised based on the new information regarding the geographic distribution of the species.

Escape behavior of the natricine snake Nerodia sipedon when approached by a human was studied in populations in wetlands in Ohio and Michigan. Snakes responded by dropping from vegetation, but not immediately fleeing (44%), by diving beneath the water (37%), or by swimming away with the head above the surface (19%). Flight initiation distance (distance between predator and prey when escape begins) was significantly greater for individuals that dropped than those that dove or swam on the surface. This novel finding suggests that dropping may position snakes well to escape should approach continue and perhaps might serve as a pursuit-deterrent signal. Adult females were warier (had greater flight initiation distance) than adult males or juveniles. Several hypotheses to account for this difference are discussed. Flight initiation distance increased with starting distance (distance between predator and prey when the predator begins to approach). This effect was much stronger than in the few lizard species studied. We propose that degree of risk assessed by snakes may change during approaches because a predator that moves directly toward a snake for a longer distance is more likely to have detected the snake and be attacking than a predator that approaches over a shorter distance. Increase in perceived risk would account for greater flight initiation distance associated with greater starting distance. Flight initiation distance for basking snakes did not vary with air temperature or perch height, contrary to previous findings for body temperature and perch height. Reasons for these findings are discussed.

Body size and growth in Bullsnakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi) in the western Nebraska Sandhills were studied from 1987 to 1999. Body size of females was not significantly different from that of males, although the largest individuals were males. Based on eggs hatched in captivity, and size class and recapture data in the field, Nebraska Bullsnakes hatch at about 33 cm snout–vent length (SVL), grow about 32 cm SVL in their first year, and reach an average adult size of 108 cm SVL. Comparisons of these data with those in the literature suggest that hatchling size, adult size, and juvenile growth rate generally decrease with increasing latitude and longitude; however, these conclusions are limited by the dearth of data from southern populations. Nevertheless, with few exceptions, possibly the result of incomplete sampling, these patterns are also generally reflected across North American Pituophis populations.

Understanding the relationships between animal population demography and the abiotic and biotic elements of the environments in which they live is a central objective in population ecology. For example, correlations between weather variables and the probability of survival in populations of temperate zone amphibians may be broadly applicable to several species if such correlations can be validated for multiple situations. This study focuses on the probability of survival and evaluates hypotheses based on six weather variables in three populations of Boreal Toads (Bufo boreas) from central Colorado over eight years. In addition to suggesting a relationship between some weather variables and survival probability in Boreal Toad populations, this study uses robust methods and highlights the need for demographic estimates that are precise and have minimal bias. Capture-recapture methods were used to collect the data, and the Cormack-Jolly-Seber model in program MARK was used for analysis. The top models included minimum daily winter air temperature, and the sum of the model weights for these models was 0.956. Weaker support was found for the importance of snow depth and the amount of environmental moisture in winter in modeling survival probability. Minimum daily winter air temperature was positively correlated with the probability of survival in Boreal Toads at other sites in Colorado and has been identified as an important covariate in studies in other parts of the world. If air temperatures are an important component of survival for Boreal Toads or other amphibians, changes in climate may have profound impacts on populations.

Our main objective was to establish the population size, density, body size, and sex ratio of a local Emys orbicularis population. We examined the population structure of E. orbicularis in Lake Yayla, Buldan (Denizli), Turkey, using capture-recapture methods. The population consisted of 54% males, 42% females, and 4% juveniles. The adult sex ratio was significantly skewed in favor of males. Using the Jolly program, the population size was estimated at 1,462 (95% CI = 1,161–1,763), corresponding to a density of 81 turtles per hectare of optimal habitat. Females were larger than males. In carapace length, the Lake Yayla population resembles other small-sized populations inhabiting the southern parts of the species' range. The conservation status of the Turkish populations and their main threats are also discussed.

Historically, Gopher Tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) occurred in fire-maintained habitats; however, many of these areas have been fire-suppressed. Herein, we examine the spatial distribution of Gopher Tortoises 17–18 years after fire reintroduction to a fire-suppressed area. Our study took place at Archbold Biological Station (ABS) in south-central Florida. Fires were suppressed at ABS from 1927 until 1985, at which time fire was reintroduced to this area. During 2002 and 2003, we surveyed Gopher Tortoise burrows in 17 burn units of sandhill and scrubby flatwoods with varied fire histories. Using density of active burrows as an indicator of Gopher Tortoise density, Gopher Tortoise burrow densities were highest in recently and frequently burned areas. Because fire influences habitat structure, we also gathered information on the amount of canopy cover and bare ground at each study site. Density of active Gopher Tortoise burrows increased with bare ground and decreased (but not significantly so) with canopy cover. Backward stepwise ridge regression analyses showed that number of fires was a more important predictor of active Gopher Tortoise burrow density than habitat structure (amount of bare ground). In sum, our study demonstrates that reintroducing fire to fire-suppressed areas is beneficial to Gopher Tortoises, and this response is not solely caused by changes in habitat structure.

A new species is described from the southern Western Ghats of India. The new species was wrongly identified as Calotes andamanensis and is distinguished from it in lacking the antehumeral pit and possessing acutely keeled scales. It is distinguished from all species of the Calotes versicolor group of Smith in having posteroventral orientation of dorsal body scales and is distinguished from all species of the Calotes liocephalus group of Smith in lacking the antehumeral pit. A redescription of C. andamanensis is provided based on the holotype. Calotes andamanensis is a valid species with type locality in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

The developmental environment can have lasting effects on posthatching phenotype in oviparous animals. Innate immune response is one important component of fitness in vertebrates because it provides a generalized defense against infection. In addition, because male vertebrates are at a higher risk of infection than females, males may benefit more from increased innate immunity than females. We determined the effects of incubation temperature on the innate immune response of hatchling map turtles (Graptemys) by incubating eggs at a range of male and female producing-temperatures and assessing plasma complement activity in the resulting hatchlings. We found a significant effect of incubation environment on circulating complement in hatchling Graptemys ouachitensis, with male-producing temperatures yielding the highest innate immune response. Most important, these results demonstrate that immune response is affected by developmental environment in a species with environmental sex determination, potentially resulting in sex differences in the ability to fend off pathogens.

Brachycephalus hermogenesi is an endemic leaf litter inhabitant of the Atlantic forest of southeastern Brazil, whose original distribution included a restricted area near the boundaries of the States of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. We were surprised to find out, while conducting herpetofaunal surveys at Estação Biológica de Boracéia (EBB), that the background forest insect–like sound we have been searching for corresponded to calling individuals of the species. Males call during the day at high densities, hidden under the leaf litter. Individuals do not answer playback, seem to move very infrequently, and seem to ignore nearby calling activity. We gathered data on annual and daily vocal activity of the species at EBB, observing a total of 1,549 calls given by 31 focal individuals in November 2003 and 2005. The call varies from short single note calls to calls composed of groups of two to seven similar notes emitted at regular intervals. We also extend the known distribution of the species southward to the State of São Paulo.

Smooth Softshell Turtles, Apalone mutica, prefer medium to large rivers with clean sand where they spend substantial amounts of time buried in the bottom sand substrate; however, the habitat requirements of hatchling A. mutica are poorly known. We designed a laboratory experiment to determine whether the presence of an underwater sand substrate affects growth and condition of hatchling A. mutica. We found that hatchlings maintained on a sand substrate grew faster and differed in body appearance compared to hatchlings maintained without a sand substrate. A readily accessible sandy substrate in which to bury may be a significant habitat component for A. mutica hatchlings. In addition, investigators maintaining A. mutica, and likely other softshell species in the laboratory, should consider the species' substrate requirements in their research design.

We monitored Spiny Softshell Turtles (Apalone spinifera) using mark-recapture during 1994–2005 in Gin Creek, Searcy, Arkansas. In 1997–2000 the creek bed and riparian zone were bulldozed in an effort to remove debris and improve water flow. This disturbance appeared to reduce the quantity and quality of turtle habitat. We tested for the potential effect of this habitat disturbance on the survival rates of marked turtles. We estimated annual survival rates for the population using models that allowed for variation in survival by state of maturation, year, and effects of the disturbance; we evaluated two different models of the disturbance impact. The first disturbance model incorporated a single change in survival rates, following the disturbance, whereas the second disturbance model incorporated three survival rates: pre- and postdisturbance, as well as a short-term decline during the disturbance. We used a state-transition model for our mark-recapture analysis, as softshells transition from juveniles to adults in a variable period of time. Our analysis indicated that survival varied by maturation state and was independent of a time trend or the disturbance. Annual survival rates were lower for juveniles (S ˆ = 0.717, SE = 0.039) than for adults (S ˆ = 0.836, SE = 0.025). Despite the dramatic habitat disturbance, we found no negative effects on survival rates. Our results demonstrate that, like a few other freshwater turtle species known to thrive in urban environments, populations of A. spinifera are resilient and can persist in urban environments despite periodic habitat disturbances.

We describe a new species of Anolis from cloud forest habitat in Department of San Martin, Peru. The new species shares distinctive aspects of color and scalation with Anolis huilae from Colombia and Anolis boettgeri and Anolis cuscoensis from Peru but differs from these species in dewlap color, limb length, and scalation. Phylogenetic analysis places the species among the basal group of “alpha” Anolis (latifrons group sensu lato, “Dactyloa”).

When divergent selection favors different phenotypes in different environments, a preference for resident mates can help ensure that offspring are well suited to local conditions, thus increasing an individual's lifetime fitness. Here I use both field and laboratory experiments to investigate the potential for mate choice in a unique color morph of the Common Lesser Earless Lizard, Holbrookia maculata, which inhabits the gypsum dune fields of White Sands in southern New Mexico. I demonstrate that light-colored H. maculata, which have evolved within the last 6,000 years, can discriminate between potential mates. In the field, simultaneous choice experiments revealed that White Sands males in their natural habitat courted females from White Sands sooner than females from a nearby population occupying dark substrate. The use of paint treatments to reverse female dorsal coloration showed that male choice was not based on dorsal coloration alone, if at all. The only variable measured in field trials that correlated strongly with male courtship behavior was female display activity. Resident females displayed in more trials than nonresident females, and males preferentially courted actively displaying females suggesting that behavioral cues may be important in this system. In the lab, sequential choice experiments on an intermediate substrate color showed that preference for local mates was reciprocal, with males of both color morphs preferentially addressing courtship behavior to potential mates from their same locality. By integrating field and lab experiments, I demonstrate that male preference for local mates in the recently diverged White Sands population is robust to experimental design.

A new species of Anomochilus is described from Gunung Kinabalu Park, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo). The new species is diagnosed from the only two other known species in the genus by the combination of the following character states: SVL to 509 mm; an azygous parietofrontal; paravertebrals 269; transverse body rows 17 : 19 : 17; midventrals 258–261; subcaudals 7–8; dorsum unpatterned dark brown, except for pale flecks, one scale wide, on paravertebral region; large pale blotches absent on dorsum; flanks without light line; and a pair of large pale blotches present on either side of venter. A dichotomous identification key to the three currently known species of Anomochilus is provided. With three species of Anomochilus known for Borneo, the island is the center of diversification of this genus of presumably fossorial and cryptozoic snakes.