The availability of new technologies, combined with changing perceptions of traditional journal publications, has created a wave of “new models” for reviewing and publishing scientific research. As the Journal of Herpetology (JH) celebrates its 50th anniversary, this is an appropriate time for the membership of SSAR to consider what kinds of changes in JH are needed to meet the needs of those who publish research in herpetology. In this review, I focus on three issues with traditional models of journal publications: criticisms of the peer-review process (especially bias and elitism); issues with rapid communication of research findings; and increasing calls for better transparency and openness of data. For issues such as gender or age bias, I provide support for calls for changes such as double-blind reviews to reduce the prevalence of such bias and also review new methods for making peer reviews more open and efficient. Conversely, I find serious problems with mechanisms such as citable “pre prints” that have been suggested as a means to increase the speed at which research findings are made available and review alternate models that can accomplish the same goal without sacrificing the integrity of journal publications. Ultimately, how JH and other herpetological journals respond to these challenges will be an ongoing process in which the membership needs to be strongly engaged.

Frogs and toads exhibit complex vocal behavior, often in the context of mating and resource defense. Although over 6,500 species of frogs and toads have been described, detailed accounts of vocal behavior exist for very few species. In this study, we provide the first detailed investigation of the vocal behavior of Neotropical Yellow Toads, Incilius luetkenii, based on recordings collected from animals in northwestern Costa Rica. We provide quantitative measurements of two call types, we test the hypothesis that male body size is related to the structure of male calls, we investigate the context in which males produce calls, and we discuss the importance of their vocal behavior in the framework of an aggressive scramble competition mating system. We found that male I. luetkenii produce two vocalizations during their explosive breeding aggregations: advertisement calls and release calls. Advertisement calls are 2.5 sec-long vocalizations consisting of a series of pulses. Release calls are 0.6 sec-long vocalizations consisting of a small number of pulses and produced when other males attempt amplexus on them. As predicted, spectral properties of advertisement calls were inversely related to body size. Video analysis of male calling behavior revealed a call rate of 0.58 calls per minute and revealed that most advertisement calls occur within 2 sec following a contact with another male. Our findings suggest that advertisement calls and, by extension, chorusing behavior are associated with aggression between males during mating aggregations and that males may communicate acoustic information about their body size during male–male encounters.

The behavioral ecology of Sonoran Desert Tortoises (Gopherus morafkai) remains relatively unstudied. In general, Sonoran Desert Tortoises (SDTs) differentially use incised washes and rocky slopes and avoid open flats and intermountain valleys, except during apparent emigration events. We know relatively little about the temporal pattern of space use in SDTs and even less about such use in relation to sex. We observed activity of adult and juvenile SDTs via radiotelemetry, and hatchling activity incidentally, over a 3-yr period in central Arizona. The SDTs were most active in the fall (August–October) but exhibited a second peak of activity in the spring (April). On average, males moved longer distances than did females in every month of the year when SDTs were active. Distance moved by females in the fall was significantly greater than all other months except April; a similar pattern of greater male movement in the fall was apparent but not statistically significant. Activity of adults was detected in virtually every month of the year except January; at least one hatchling was observed active in every month of the year. We conclude that adult SDTs home range areas 1) are consistent in size and placement across multiple years and, for females especially, may include a “migratory” pattern to north slopes following summer rains, where they encounter a higher diversity and abundance of food plants; 2) are highly overlapping in females but less so in males; and 3) contain a few refuges in relatively lower elevation washes that are used consistently, especially during the hot, dry summer (May and June), and that are selected over many other available caliche refuges.

During a 17-yr telemetry study, we examined the diet and ambush behavior of a population of Crotalus horridus in southeastern Virginia. Forty dietary items were identified from 37 fecal samples. We documented 722 instances of snakes in an ambush posture, 61% of which were in a vertical-tree posture, as if hunting arboreal prey at the base of a tree. The most common prey items were Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), which accounted for 45% of all dietary items and represented an estimated 78% of total biomass consumed by C. horridus. Prey was not consumed in proportion to availability, based on small mammal surveys. Our analysis provides indirect evidence that the vertical-tree foraging behavior is adopted to target arboreal Eastern Gray Squirrels. Further, we provide support for the hypothesis that C. horridus alters ambush behavior to forage selectively for specific prey types.

Sea snakes are an important component of bycatch in commercial and small-scale trawl fisheries in tropical waters and are highly vulnerable to fishing-related mortality. Extensive boat-based surveys were conducted to investigate the assemblage and abundance of sea snakes within a protected shallow coastal bay adjacent to productive trawl fishing grounds. Spine-Bellied Sea Snakes, Hydrophis curtus (previously Lapemis curtus), and Elegant Sea Snakes, Hydrophis elegans, were the most commonly encountered species. Based on the age structure of these two species, the bay was used primarily by juveniles. Temporal trends in age structure and sex ratios showed that H. curtus may use Cleveland Bay as a nursery ground, with gravid females entering the bay in summer months to give birth. In contrast, H. elegans appears to use the bay more consistently through the year, with ∼30% of individuals being adults. This study also showed that shallow tidal habitats, too shallow for trawl fishing, are regularly used by sea snakes and may provide refugia for vulnerable life stages. The identification and protection of such habitats may further mitigate risks to sea snake populations from trawl fishing.

Reforestation of early successional vegetation types has been implicated in the decline and extirpation of snake species dependent on exposed basking sites. Consequently, basking-site improvement measures (e.g., brush clearing) are frequently proposed to conserve threatened and endangered snake populations; however, demographic response of snakes to vegetation manipulation is largely unknown. This study measured changes in reproductive fitness, survival, and abundance of females in an isolated population of endangered Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnakes (Sistrurus catenatus) in years before and after cutting of woody vegetation to create basking opportunities. We marked a total of 181 snakes from 2006 to 2014, over which time substantial vegetation was cleared in key gestation areas to increase availability of basking sites for gravid females. Reproductive cycles of females in this population appeared to be primarily biennial, with parturition dates strongly influenced by maximum daily summer temperatures. Estimated annual survival (s = 0.78, 95% confidence interval: 0.67–0.86) and number of gravid females (range = 9–46 individuals) showed no temporal trend, nor did body condition (mass relative to length) of gravid females. Our results imply that if a demographic response to basking-site manipulations occurs in Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnakes, it will significantly lag management intervention.

Populations of American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) generally are considered more abundant at present than historically; however, little information exists to assess the population of alligators in North Carolina at the northern extent of the species' range. Investigation of the factors influencing the distribution and abundance of alligators in North Carolina could shed light on the species' response to rapid environmental change in the region. We conducted a two-phase study: 1) to assess the distribution of alligators in North Carolina using a site-occupancy design; and 2) to assess the patterns in abundance using a repeated sampling design for population estimation. Results showed that both occupancy and abundance decreased in more northern sites, in sites with higher salinity, and in sites that were generally more westward. Sites sampled later in June were more likely to be occupied than those sampled earlier in the month. Abundance also increased with greater shoreline vegetation complexity and varied between lakes, rivers, and estuaries. Compared with studies from 30 years prior, the population seems fairly stable in terms of abundance and distribution. Given the northern limits of the species and the negative association with salinity, continued monitoring is warranted to understand changes in distribution and abundance with respect to predicted rates of sea-level rise, salinization, and urbanization locally around coastal cities like Wilmington.

Classifying a species as having either genotypic or environmental sex determination may oversimplify the processes that influence offspring sex. Using two independently gathered data sets on veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus), we show that a hatchling's sex is affected by the interaction between egg mass and incubation temperature. In both studies, larger eggs produced daughters at lower temperatures and sons at higher temperatures; however, the relationships between incubation temperature, egg mass, and sex diverged markedly between the two studies. The shift in egg-size effects was seen between 25°C and 28°C in one study and between 28°C and 30°C in the other. The links between offspring size, sex, and incubation temperature are not an artifact of differential mortality; in one of the studies, egg survival rates were uniformly high. Other data on scincid and agamid lizards also do not support a simple dichotomy in sex-determining systems. Our results challenge simplistic classificatory schemes and call for a reanalysis of existing data sets to look for multifactorial as well as unifactorial effects on offspring sex.

Historically, Belize has used large quantities of organochlorine (OC) pesticides for agriculture and disease-vector control, yet few tools exist for noninvasive assessment of OC contaminant loads in Belize wildlife. Crocodile caudal (tail) scutes are clipped as a marking technique in wildlife management programs and may also have utility as a minimally invasive, nonlethal technique to assess contaminant burden. We collected caudal scutes from 96 Morelet's Crocodiles in Belize over 2 yr to analyze scute tissues for OCs and to compare the observed OC concentrations among different scute tissue (fat, cartilage, and muscle) and among crocodiles of different age classes, sexes, and collection locations. Organochlorines of the DDT-type subclass were detected in 72 of 96 crocodiles, with methoxychlor detected in all 72 scutes containing OCs and p,p-DDE, p,p'-DDT, and p,p-DDD detected in 54, 47, and 20 scute samples, respectively. Organochlorines were more-frequently detected in scutes of adult crocodiles, but methoxychlor was occasionally observed in juveniles at concentrations two orders of magnitude higher than observed in adults, suggesting maternal offload of methoxychlor to offspring, greater exposure through juvenile habitat and diet, or both. Organochlorines were detected in crocodiles from all sampling locations with more frequent and higher concentrations observed in crocodiles from lagoon habitats than from river habitats. This study demonstrates that scutes can be used as a nonlethal indicator of OCs present in Morelet's Crocodiles, a finding which has applications for determining the trophic transfer of OC pesticides through tropical aquatic food webs and for estimating the continuing risk posed to crocodiles and other species by OC pesticides.

Poikilothermic species, such as amphibians, endure harsh winter conditions via freeze-tolerance or freeze-avoidance strategies. Freeze-tolerance requires a suite of complex, physiological mechanisms (e.g., cryoprotectant synthesis); however, behavioral strategies (e.g., hibernal habitat selection) may be used to regulate hibernaculum temperatures and promote overwintering survival. We investigated the hibernal ecology of the freeze-tolerant Wood Frog (Lithobates sylvaticus) in north-central Maine. Our objectives were to characterize the species hibernaculum microclimate (temperature, relative humidity), evaluate hibernal habitat selection, and describe the spatial arrangement of breeding, post-breeding, and hibernal habitats. We monitored 15 frogs during two winters (2011/12: N = 10; 2012/13: N = 5), measured hibernal habitat features at micro (2 m) and macro (10 m) spatial scales, and recorded microclimate hourly in three strata (hibernaculum, leaf litter, ambient air). We compared these data to that of 57 random locations with logistic regression models, Akaike Information Criterion, and Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests. Hibernaculum microclimate was significantly different and less variable than leaf litter, ambient air, and random location microclimate. Model averaging indicated that canopy cover (−), leaf litter depth ( ), and number of logs and stumps ( ; microhabitat only) were important predictors of Wood Frog hibernal habitat. These habitat features likely act to insulate hibernating frogs from extreme and variable air temperatures. For example, decreased canopy cover facilitates increased snowpack depth and earlier snowpack accumulation and melt. Altered winter temperature and precipitation patterns attributable to climate change may reduce snowpack insulation, facilitate greater temperature variation in the underlying hibernacula, and potentially compromise Wood Frog winter survival.

The cryptic behavior and ecology of herpetofauna make estimating the impacts of environmental change on demography difficult; yet, the ability to measure demographic relationships is essential for elucidating mechanisms leading to the population declines reported for herpetofauna worldwide. Recently developed spatial capture–recapture (SCR) methods are well suited to standard herpetofauna monitoring approaches. Individually identifying animals and their locations allows accurate estimates of population densities and survival. Spatial capture–recapture methods also allow estimation of parameters describing space-use and movement, which generally are expensive or difficult to obtain using other methods. In this paper, we discuss the basic components of SCR models, the available software for conducting analyses, and the experimental designs based on common herpetological survey methods. We then apply SCR models to Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus), to determine differences in density, survival, dispersal, and space-use between adult male and female salamanders. By highlighting the capabilities of SCR, and its advantages compared to traditional methods, we hope to give herpetologists the resource they need to apply SCR in their own systems.

The Puerto Rican Coqui Frog (Eleutherodactylus coqui) is a nocturnal, invasive species that was introduced into Hawaii in the 1980s. Because they reach extremely high densities (up to 90,000 frogs/ha), they have the potential to affect invertebrate prey communities. Previously, researchers used frogs collected only at night to characterize their prey. Because Coquis use retreat sites near the forest floor during the day and understory perch sites at night, frogs collected at night might show different amounts and types of prey than would frogs collected in the morning. We analyzed stomach contents of 435 frogs collected in the morning (0300–0600 h) and at night (1900–2200 h) from five sites on the island of Hawaii. Frogs collected in the morning had 1.7 times more prey items and 2.1 times greater prey volume than those collected at night; however, prey composition did not differ between morning- and evening-collected frogs. Across sites, Formicidae (ants) and Amphipoda (amphipods) were the dominant prey, and at least 61.6% of their prey items were nonnative species. Across sites, morning- and evening-collected stomach contents were not different from environmental samples of leaf-litter invertebrates but were different from environmental samples of foliage and flying invertebrates, suggesting that Coquis forage primarily in the leaf litter throughout the night. Previous research that investigated stomach contents of frogs collected only at night greatly underestimated the number and volume of prey items that Coquis consume during the entire foraging period but accurately described their primary prey: nonnative, leaf-litter invertebrates.

The diet of an animal may be influenced by both its reproductive biology and seasonal changes. Here we investigate these factors in the lizard species, Liolaemus ramirezae, from the prepuna of northwestern Argentina, during spring, summer, and autumn. We found that L. ramirezae eats mainly Hemiptera, Coleoptera, and Formicidae. Considering total plant volume with respect to prey volume, this species was mostly insectivorous. Food intake varied among the different seasons and between the sexes. We recorded males with the greatest increase in testicular volume in spring, most females being gravid at that time. In summer, females were in a previtellogenic state, and in autumn most were previtellogenic with one being vitellogenic. When females were gravid they ate significantly less. In contrast, the relationship between male reproductive state and amount of prey consumed was not as distinct. Therefore, in L. ramirezae, the amount of food consumed by males would not be affected by their reproductive state; however, in females reproductive state could be regulating the amount and type of food ingested, particularly when they are in a gravid state.

We studied Desert Massasauga Rattlesnakes (Sistrurus catenatus edwardsii) in southeastern Colorado in 1998 and 2005–2007. Mark–recapture data for 770 snakes indicated a population size of >3,500 snakes in an area of approximately 4,800 ha. Field growth rates and size class frequency distributions showed that average snake age was 3 yr; 4 yr old snakes were frequently encountered, but less than 4% were 5 yr or older, suggesting low survivorship beyond this age. Conversely, initial growth was rapid; snakes grew an average of 0.57 mm/day in their first full year. Desert Massasaugas mated in fall and spring, producing 2–7 (mean 3.3) young in late August to early September, and reproduction appeared to be biennial. Desert Massasaugas showed maternal attendance for at least 5 days postparturition, and neonate dispersal corresponded with the first shed. Radioed Desert Massasaugas (N = 15) used rodent burrows as hibernacula, and within 50 m of Desert Massasauga hibernacula, eight snake, five anuran, and two turtle species use the same area for hibernation. Low prey density at the hibernaculum indicates that stable hibernation conditions are the primary resource attracting a diverse assemblage of species to this area. The hibernaculum area serves as a critically important winter refuge for numerous species and supports the largest known population of Desert Massasaugas. This population is considered stable at present; however, because of rapidly changing climatic conditions, habitat loss and degradation, anthropogenic disturbance, and shifts in prey abundance, it may become threatened in the near future, and continued monitoring is warranted.

Fossorial habits occur in many animal lineages and usually involve both morphological and physiological adaptations that may evolve independently. Burrowing behavior in some species of the anuran subfamily Leptodactylinae involves the specialized use of the hind limbs and/or head. The aim of this study was to identify the morphometric characters associated with burrowing behavior in species of this subfamily. We then hypothesized that, as this habit is usually associated with males, we would find sexual dimorphism in head and hind-limb morphology in the burrowing species but not in the nonburrowing species. We compared 500 specimens from 24 species using phylogenetic statistical analyses and phylogenetic mapping of sexually dimorphic characters. The results demonstrated the following: 1) There was no correlation between the measurements of the limbs, head, or tarsal tubercle and burrowing behavior in the analyzed species; 2) there was no sexual dimorphism related to burrowing behavior reflected in measurements of the head or hind limbs; and 3) sexual dimorphism in the morphometric characters always was derived. Modifications of the ridged snout and increased ossification in the nasal region of the males of the fossorial species appear to be sufficient adaptations for burrowing.

The relationships between the number of trunk and caudal vertebrae, the number of ventral and subcaudal scales, and snout–vent length (SVL) and tail length were investigated in several species of Hypsiglena, including a few specimens from species contact zones. We confirm the presence of a 1:1 relationship between trunk vertebrae and ventral scales within Hypsiglena (99 specimens total; 50 males; 49 females). We also found a positive relationship between the number of ventral scales and SVL in adult specimens. We did not find a 1:1 relationship between caudal vertebrae and subcaudal scales, but there is a positive relationship between subcaudal scales and tail length. Because there is a positive relationship with the number of ventral scales and SVL, we infer—as general population trends—that snakes with more ventral scales have the capacity to grow to be larger than snakes with fewer ventral scales. Many other environmental factors influence body size, however, and this trend should be used only as a general comparison. Therefore, the number of ventral scales can be used as a proxy for general population trends in body size among species of Hypsiglena, as wide geographic-ranging species may be exposed to large-scale environmental gradients (e.g., lower temperatures at higher latitudes). Ventral and subcaudal scale counts may not be good diagnostic characters for assigning individual specimens to taxonomic groups or for diagnosing taxonomic groups, because species appear to show much overlapping variation. This variation may be good for examining different trends in body size between taxa across geographic landscapes.

Some sea snakes and sea kraits (family Elapidae) can dive for upward of two hours while foraging or feeding, largely because they are able to absorb a significant percentage of their oxygen demand across their skin surfaces. Although cutaneous oxygen uptake is a common adaptation in marine elapids, whether its uptake can be manipulated in response to conditions that might alter metabolic rate is unclear. Our data strongly suggest that Yellow-Lipped Sea Kraits, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799), can modify cutaneous uptake in response to changing pulmonary oxygen saturation levels. When exposed to stepwise 20% decreases in aerial oxygen saturation from 100% to 40%, Yellow-Lipped Sea Kraits spent more time emerged but breathed less frequently. A significant graded increase in cutaneous uptake was seen between 100% and 60% saturation, likely attributable to subcutaneous capillary recruitment. The additional increase in oxygen uptake between 60% and 40% was not significant, indicating capillary recruitment is likely complete at pulmonary saturations of 60%. During a pilot trial, a single Yellow-Lipped Sea Krait exposed to an aerial saturation of 25% became severely stressed after 20 min, suggesting a lower saturation tolerance level between 40% and 25% for the species. Reducing subcutaneous perfusion could optimize swimming performance during foraging, whereas redirecting blood to skin surfaces would maximize dive times when subduing prey or avoiding aerial predators.

Body composition is a measure of an animal's energetic state that can inform many research fields, yet the analysis traditionally requires individuals to be killed, and chemical analysis is labor intensive. Quantitative magnetic resonance (QMR) measures body composition noninvasively in live and nonanesthetized animals. Our aim was to validate QMR analysis for snakes by comparing it with gravimetric chemical analysis. We collected Northern Watersnakes (Nerodia sipedon sipedon) and Eastern Massasaugas (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) that were found dead on roads, analyzed their body composition using the QMR scanner, and then by gravimetric chemical analysis. We compared fat mass, wet lean mass, and total water mass between the two methods, and then calculated bias, absolute error (g), and relative error (%) of the QMR analysis. Body composition values from the QMR analyses were highly correlated with the values obtained by gravimetric chemical analysis. Bias and errors were reasonable for wet lean and total water mass values, but the raw QMR data overestimated fat mass. When we calibrated the QMR using the chemical extraction data, it nearly eliminated bias and greatly reduced absolute and relative error. Therefore, following calibration, QMR analysis is an effective method to measure body composition of snakes. QMR very accurately measures wet lean and total water masses and can be used to detect changes in fat mass particularly in longitudinal studies of individuals across seasons.

The pitviper Trimeresurus (Popeia) toba was described on the basis of slight morphological differences between six specimens collected in northern Sumatra and the other recognized species of Trimeresurus (Popeia) from the Sunda Shelf. In January 2014, we collected two additional specimens of T. (P.) toba from Sumatra and located a third unexamined specimen at the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense. We compared molecular and morphological data generated from these specimens with existing data for T. (P.) toba and the other Sunda Shelf Trimeresurus (Popeia). Our findings indicate that T. (P.) toba is indistinguishable from T. (P.) barati, the other species that occurs on Sumatra. Additionally, with the exception of T. (P.) nebularis, all currently recognized species of Trimeresurus (Popeia) from the Sunda Shelf are minimally divergent and the morphological characters used to diagnose the individual species broadly overlap. For these reasons, we conclude that all should be considered a single species, T. (P.) sabahi.

Ular bandotan toba, Trimeresurus (Popeia) toba telah dideskripsikan berdasarkan perbedaan kecil pada morfologi antara enam spesimen dari Sumatera Utara dan spesies lain yang dikenali sebagai Trimeresurus (Popeia) dari Paparan Sunda. Pada bulan Januari 2014, kami mengumpulkan dua spesimen tambahan T. (P.) toba, dan satu spesimen ketiga yang belum diperiksa di Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense. Kami membandingkan data molekuler dan morfologi yang dihasilkan dari spesimen-spesimen baru terhadap data yang ada dari Trimeresurus (Popeia) Paparan Sunda lainnya. Temuan kami menunjukkan bahwa T. (P.) toba tidak dapat dibedakan terhadap T. (P.) barati, spesies lain yang diketahui dari Sumatera. Selain itu, dengan pengecualian pada T. (P.) nebularis, saat ini semua spesies Trimeresurus (Popeia) dari Paparan Sunda berbeda sedikit dan karakter morfologi yang digunakan untuk menentukan individu spesies secara luas tumpang tindih. Untuk alasan ini, kami menyimpulkan bahwa semuanya harus dianggap merupakan spesies tunggal, T. (P.) sabahi.

I address some taxonomic issues created by previous perceptions of species' boundaries in Amphisbaena from southern South America, including specimens with intermediate characteristics. In this note I propose the synonymization of Amphisbaena trachura and Amphisbaena heterozonata into Amphisbaena darwini, and the maintenance of the current species Amphisbaena angustifrons and Amphisbaena plumbea.

Under the DNA Barcode initiative, we used the mitochondrial locus cytochrome c oxidase I to test if this molecular marker would reliably distinguish among lizard species of the patagonicus clade of Phymaturus. Using 18 described species and two populations of unidentified species, we calculated intra- and interpopulation genetic distances for all operational taxonomic units and performed phylogenetic reconstructions using maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood. We identified different species that share the same barcode index number (BIN). We recorded only 12 of the 18 previously described species and one candidate species from the new population. By comparing our results with published morphological and molecular phylogenies, as well as with previous debates, we propose possible explanations for this. In some cases (such as the group with the same BIN formed by Phymaturus spurcus, Phymaturus spectabilis, Phymaturus excelsus, and Phymaturus agilis), where other authors debated the identity of the species, we suggest that the low genetic distances could be attributable to the presence of one species with high polymorphism. On the other hand, in geographically isolated species such as the group formed by Phymaturus payuniae and Phymaturus nevadoi, the group formed by Phymaturus somuncurensis and Phymaturus ceii, and the group formed by Phymaturus indistinctus and Phymaturus videlai, the topology of the phylogenetic trees indicates that the low genetic distances (also found by other authors analyzing cytochrome b) could be attributable to shared ancestral polymorphism resulting from incomplete lineage sorting.