Guanacos (Lama guanicoe) are the most important native herbivorous species in the South American steppes and the dominant ungulate in a fauna rich in rodents but poor in large mammal species. Between 2 and 4 subspecies are usually recognized within Lama guanicoe, based on subtle morphological differences and geographic distribution. To evaluate whether molecular variation is consistent with the latter hypotheses, we analyzed the complete cytochrome-b and partial control region mitochondrial DNA sequences of L. guanicoe from 22 localities in Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. Sequence analyses of both genes support the monophyly of the species but failed to distinguish the occurrence of subspecies along the geographic range. Despite that, the northernmost populations (Peru and northern Chile) showed some degree of genetic differentiation with respect to southern representatives from Argentina, Bolivia, and rest of Chile. Analysis of genetic diversity also showed a strong signal of past low population size and a recent population expansion.

Raccoons occur on a number of islands in the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies. Zooarcheological studies have long suggested that these animals are not native to the West Indies. Originally, Caribbean populations were described as endemic insular species Procyon maynardi (Bahamas), P. minor (Guadeloupe), and P. gloveralleni (Barbados), a classification that was recognized throughout much of the 20th century. More recently, studies of qualitative morphology and a review of historical publications and documents have been used to bolster arguments that these populations of raccoons are not unique species worthy of special conservation attention, but invasive populations of the North American raccoon (P. lotor) introduced in recent centuries. Raccoons in the Bahamas and the French Antilles appear to be spreading onto other islands with human assistance, but the population on Barbados is now apparently extinct. We present evidence from the mitochondrial control region, including sequence data from the extinct population on Barbados generated using ancient DNA protocols, indicating that all 3 major insular populations of West Indian raccoons are conspecific with P. lotor and probably originated via recent translocations from eastern North America. Like nonnative populations of raccoons that have been established elsewhere (e.g., in Alaska, Japan, and Europe), the raccoons of the West Indies deserve no special taxonomic recognition or conservation status. They may be destructive to native wildlife on West Indian islands where they have been introduced, particularly if their spread to and across other islands continues.

In Venezuela, bats of the subgenus Phyllodia of the genus Pteronotus (Mormoopidae) are divided into 3 taxa, Pteronotus parnellii fuscus, P. p. paraguanensis, and P. p. rubiginosus. We compare them with respect to body size and shape by means of principal components analyses and cluster analyses applied to 26 craniodental and 7 appendicular (fore and rear limbs) measurements of 267 Venezuelan specimens. The analyses indicate that the subspecies endemic to the Península de Paraguaná, P. p. paraguanensis, differs from the other 2 taxa in being considerably smaller and in having markedly distinct craniodental and appendicular shapes; and, although to a lesser degree, P. p. fuscus and P. p. rubiginosus also differ notably from each other in these morphometric aspects. Our results justify raising P. p. paraguanensis to species rank. The tight dependence of members of Phyllodia on forest may explain the high levels of morphometric (this paper) and molecular (previous studies) variability of the subgenus. The reduced geographic distribution, small population, and full species status of the Phyllodia of Península de Paraguaná justify special conservation measures.

The rediscovery of Calomyscus hotsoni in Pakistan is reported. This species had previously been known from a series of specimens taken at the type locality in southwestern Pakistan in 1918 and a series of specimens from 4 localities in southeastern Iran collected in 1962 and reported as this taxon in 2005. Specimens of C. hotsoni were collected from 4 additional locations in southern Pakistan between 1996 and 1999. Partial sequence data from cytochrome b support the recognition of C. hotsoni as a distinct species from the other Calomyscus found in Pakistan, C. baluchi. Material collected from near the type localities of C. hotsoni and C. baluchi demonstrate significant differences in 5 cranial measurements and all external measurements other than ear height. C. hotsoni can be differentiated from C. baluchi by its smaller hind foot. The known distribution of C. hotsoni is greatly expanded and some ecological observations about the species also are reported. Examination of data presented on the distribution and on variation in local abundance suggests that C. hotsoni is currently neither endangered nor threatened.

Recent field and revisionary studies of Madagascar's endemic rodents (Muroidea: Nesomyidae: Nesomyinae) have dramatically improved our understanding of species-level diversity within this group. However, such studies have generally focused on taxa from the island's relatively well-studied eastern humid forests and have relied solely on morphometric comparisons. Herein, we undertake a study of morphometric and genetic variation within Macrotarsomys bastardi, a rodent endemic to Madagascar's dry forest habitats. In particular, we evaluate existing subspecific boundaries using comparisons of cranial and external measurements from 84 museum specimens. We then assess phylogeographic structure across the geographic range of the species using sequence variation in the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene from a subset of these specimens. We conclude that there is little basis for recognizing established subspecies, but that molecular data reveal novel patterns of diversity and geographic structure within this species. These results, coupled with emerging patterns of diversity in other endemic Malagasy mammals, suggest that there is underestimated diversity and biogeographic structure within Madagascar's western habitats.

Taxonomy of thicket rats (Grammomys) is highly provisional and the genus is in a critical need of a thorough revision. We compared G. cometes from Eastern Cape Province (n = 150) with G. ibeanus, G. macmillani, and the southern African G. dolichurus, applying analyses of a partial cytochrome-b (Cytb) sequence (375 base pairs), karyotypes, and cranial morphology. Genetically, G. cometes appeared to be very close to G. dolichurus (mean sequence divergence of 3.4% ± 0.8% SE), whereas G. ibeanus and G. macmillani were separated by a mean sequence divergence of 5.4% ± 1.2%. Nucleotide diversity among haplotypes was higher in G. dolichurus (π = 0.0080 ± 0.0010 SD) than in G. cometes (π = 0.0040 ± 0.0009). G. cometes and G. dolichurus showed the same diploid chromosome number (2N = 52) of mostly acrocentric autosomes. None of the karyotypes reported so far for various Grammomys species match the chromosomal sets we found in Eastern Cape Province. Discriminant function analysis on 5 cranial measurements that are not affected by age variation was successful in separating G. cometes and G. ibeanus, but G. dolichurus appeared very similar to the former. In spite of their close genetic and morphological proximity, G. cometes and G. dolichurus tend toward ecological segregation and behave as distinct biological species. G. cometes is endemic to the southern African subregion and the 4 Eastern Cape Province localities are possibly isolates. Specimens were caught in the Afromontane forest above 1,000 m elevation and the lowland riverine forests dominated by Combretum caffra.

Ontogenetic differences between males and females result in sexual dimorphism, but this process is poorly understood in the majority of mammalian taxa. Sexual dimorphism is particularly extreme in the otariids (Carnivora: Otariidae), and to examine the origin, structure, and temporal patterns of otariid morphological diversity, we focus here on 3 otariid species: Arctocephalus australis (southern fur seal), Callorhinus ursinus (northern fur seal), and Otaria byronia (southern sea lion). Our aims are to compare the ontogeny of skull shape across species, and to evaluate the ontogeny of sexual dimorphism, testing the hypothesis that dimorphism arises by extrapolation of a shared ontogeny to the larger sizes that are characteristic of males. We found that dimorphism increased over ontogeny but was not due solely to allometric extrapolation, because different rates of development were found in some species. Specifically, the relationships between changes in shape and size increase were different between sexes in A. australis and O. byronia, but equal in C. ursinus. It is possible to implicate heterochrony in the origins of the modifications undergone during the ontogeny of males and females of A. australis and O. byronia, considering the differences in the rates of development between the sexes of both species, but it is certain that allometric repatterning also is involved in these.

Social organization is an important component of the population biology of a species that influences gene flow, the spatial pattern and scale of movements, and the effects of predation or exploitation by humans. An important element of social structure in mammals is group fidelity, which can be quantified through association indices. To describe the social organization of marine tucuxi dolphins (Sotalia guianensis) found in the Cananéia estuary, southeastern Brazil, association indices were applied to photo-identification data to characterize the temporal stability of relationships among members of this population. Eighty-seven days of fieldwork were conducted from May 2000 to July 2003, resulting in direct observations of 374 distinct groups. A total of 138 dolphins were identified on 1–38 distinct field days. Lone dolphins were rarely seen, whereas groups were composed of up to 60 individuals (mean ± 1 SD = 12.4 ± 11.4 individuals per group). A total of 29,327 photographs were analyzed, of which 6,312 (21.5%) were considered useful for identifying individuals. Half-weight and simple ratio indices were used to investigate associations among S. guianensis as revealed by the entire data set, data from the core study site, and data from groups composed of ≤10 individuals. Monte Carlo methods indicated that only 3 (9.3%) of 32 association matrices differed significantly from expectations based on random association. Thus, our study suggests that stable associations are not characteristic of S. guianensis in the Cananéia estuary.

Habitat loss, introduced disease, and government-sponsored eradication programs have caused population declines in all 5 species of prairie dogs. Black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) currently occupy only about 2% of an extensive geographic range (160 million hectares) and were recently considered for listing under the United States Endangered Species Act. Accurate estimates of density for populations of prairie dogs would be valuable for estimating range-wide abundance and for determining threats to species persistence, yet estimates of density using robust approaches (e.g., complete enumeration or mark–recapture) are rarely undertaken. We introduce a novel approach to estimating density of prairie dogs using mark–resight methods. Using mark–resight, mark–recapture, and 3 other indices, we estimated the abundance of prairie dogs on 3 reintroduced colonies over a 3-year period (2003–2005). We show that mark–resight is a superior approach to estimating abundance of prairie dogs, that average density estimates from the southern extremity of the species' range are considerably lower (11.3 prairie dogs/ha) than estimates from more northerly climes (X̄ = 18.3–90.3 prairie dogs/ha), and that population densities can fluctuate widely in accordance with local environmental conditions. We propose that resource agencies use mark–resight methods to obtain density estimates of prairie dog populations within diverse ecoregions, and couple these estimates with an assessment of the area occupied by prairie dog colonies to determine range-wide abundance.

Variation in vital demographic (e.g., survival) rates of males can influence population dynamics, but the male segment of the population is frequently ignored in ecological studies of mammals. Using a multistate capture–mark–recapture model and 44 years (1962–2006) of data from 17 habitat patches, we investigated spatial and temporal variation in age-specific survival rates of male yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) in Colorado. We hypothesized that apparent survival rate of juvenile males would show the greatest spatial and temporal variation as younger animals are more susceptible to extrinsic environmental factors, survival of yearling males would vary over space because of documented spatial variation in dispersal patterns, and survival of adults would be less variable than that of juveniles or yearlings and would vary over space because of demonstrated spatial variation in site quality. Our results revealed that, as predicted, the survival of juveniles varied over time and among sites, whereas that of yearlings varied among sites but not over time. The survival of adults did not vary significantly over time or among sites. We also examined the effects of several intrinsic and extrinsic environmental factors on spatial and temporal variation in survival rates. Our results suggest that male marmots of different ages respond differentially to temporal and spatial variation in environmental factors.

Intrusion by humans into wildlife habitat during recreational activities has become a worldwide conservation concern. Low levels of intrusion, which occur frequently in many wildlands, could influence use of sites by red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) and have important ramifications for conservation. Red squirrels can influence forest composition and regeneration by feeding on conifer buds, seeds, and vascular tissues, and they prey on avian nests. Attraction of red squirrels could increase the risk of these activities, whereas displacement of red squirrels may exacerbate demographic problems for small populations of red squirrels in isolated habitats. We implemented experimental intrusions during 10 consecutive weeks of the red squirrel breeding season, 1 or 2 times/week (1990–1993) in 1 area and 5 times/week (1991–1993) in another area in Wyoming. Each intrusion lasted 1 h and involved 1 person. Abundance of red squirrels at intruded sites did not differ significantly from that at control sites during either experiment. However, experiments should be conducted to examine longer-term effects and effects of higher levels of intrusion because alteration of distributions of red squirrels may affect forest conditions and demographics or fitness of birds and red squirrels.

Spatial synchrony is a common feature of mammalian population dynamics that appears to be caused by different processes in different systems. We sampled 60 sites across >900 km in northern and central Ontario, Canada, from 2001 to 2004 to assess spatial and temporal trends in abundance and population growth of small mammals. We tested alternative predictions for 3 causes of synchrony: dispersal, predation, and correlated environmental perturbations (the Moran effect). During 25,680 trap nights, Myodes gapperi, Tamias striatus, and Peromyscus maniculatus were the most commonly captured species. Populations of all 3 species fluctuated markedly during the 4 years of sampling, but fluctuations appeared to occur over a relatively small spatial extent (<200 km for all species). No pairwise combination of species exhibited positive interspecific synchrony, suggesting that nomadic predation was not synchronizing declines among species. Our data were most consistent with the dispersal hypothesis or a Moran effect caused through synchronous food crops.

Multiple paternity may vary in frequency within populations because of changes in density. We investigated the occurrence of multiple paternity in an enclosed population of gray-sided voles (Myodes [formerly Clethrionomys] rufocanus) while focusing on the effect of density. We determined parentage from microsatellite DNA loci and mark–recapture livetrapping data. Breeding males had home ranges that covered several home ranges of reproductive females and overlapped with those of intrasexual competitors throughout the breeding season. We captured 918 weaned voles (454 females and 464 males) from 215 litters. Litters sired by multiple males (mainly 2 males) were observed throughout the breeding season, and the proportion of litters with multiple sires was 23.2% (50/215). The proportion of litters showing multiple paternity was strongly positively correlated with local density of males around estrous females. Mating success of males was related to body mass of males for mating occasions with a single sire and those with multiple sires. Taken together, our results suggest that multimale mating occurs because dominant males cannot deter subordinates from access to their mates when local density of males is high.

Ecosystems around the world have been degraded or destroyed by human activities, including regulation of river flows, clearance of vegetation, and removal of fallen timber. In southeastern Australia much of the original vegetation was converted to farmland. Remaining forests such as hilly box–ironbark and floodplain river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) are mostly regrowth. The yellow-footed antechinus (Antechinus flavipes) inhabits both types of forests and is the only small, native, carnivorous mammal on most floodplains in southeastern Australia. In this region, frequency of flooding has been reduced by regulation of river flows, which has led to decline in conditions favorable for flood-adapted terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Here, we compared numbers of A. flavipes in box–ironbark forests, and in river red gum forests that were deprived of floods; partially inundated with environmental flows; flooded naturally; and watered in large, artificial floods. We found that abundance of A. flavipes on floodplains and in box–ironbark forests increased with larger volumes of fallen timber and with greater numbers of large, old trees. In river red gum forests, numbers of 2nd-year females increased with proximity to flood locations. For conservation purposes, we recommend preservation of large trees, restoration of fallen timber on forest floors, and spring flooding of floodplains.

Estimates of abundance are extremely valuable for species conservation, yet determining abundance for elusive, wide-ranging, carnivores is difficult. We estimated density of pumas using remote cameras across study sites in Bolivia, Argentina, and Belize. We used obvious and subtle markings to identify individual pumas in photographs and conducted double-blind identifications to examine the degree of agreement among investigators. Average agreement on identification between pairs of investigators was nearly 80.0% and 3-way agreement was 72.9%. Identification of pumas as different individuals was uncommon (7.8% pairwise, 0.69% 3-way disagreement) with the remainder described as unidentifiable. Densities of pumas varied consistently from site to site regardless of investigator. Bolivian pumas moved the shortest distances between camera stations and Argentinean pumas the longest, but distances among cameras and area covered by surveys varied among sites. We applied a correction factor to the Bolivian data to account for the small area surveyed and found that, averaged across investigator, Bolivia had significantly more pumas per 100 km² (mean ± SD; 6.80 ± 1.5) than Belize (3.42 ± 1.3) or Argentina (0.67 ± 0.2). Numbers of pumas in Argentina match those of low-density North American sites, and those for Belize are consistent with the Pantanal and high-density North American sites. Densities of pumas can be reliably estimated with remote cameras for these sites, and our work presents the 1st density estimates for Central America and for forested environments in South America.

A clear understanding of habitat associations of martens (Martes americana) is necessary to effectively manage and monitor populations. However, this information was lacking for martens in most of their southern range, particularly during the summer season. We studied the distribution and habitat correlates of martens from 2004 to 2006 in Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) across 3 spatial scales: site-specific, home-range, and landscape. We used remote-sensored cameras from early August through late October to inventory occurrence of martens and modeled occurrence as a function of habitat and landscape variables using binary response (BR) and binomial count (BC) logistic regression, and occupancy modeling (OM). We also assessed which was the most appropriate modeling technique for martens in RMNP. Of the 3 modeling techniques, OM appeared to be most appropriate given the explanatory power of derived models and its incorporation of detection probabilities, although the results from BR and BC provided corroborating evidence of important habitat correlates. Location of sites in the western portion of the park, riparian mixed-conifer stands, and mixed-conifer with aspen patches were most frequently positively correlated with occurrence of martens, whereas more xeric and open sites were avoided. Additionally, OM yielded unbiased occupancy values ranging from 91% to 100% and 20% to 30% for the western and eastern portions of RMNP, respectively.

The acquisition of behavior in animals is a function of both inheritance and learning, where learning can occur asocially (independent of other animals), socially (by observing other animals), or both. For species that have a prolonged parent–offspring relationship and that live solitary adult lives, social learning between parents and offspring may be a dominant form of learning. If parent–offspring learning is a dominant avenue for acquiring behavior or if behavior is inherited, then behaviors that confer significant fitness advantages should lead to subpopulations of genetically related individuals with similar behavioral patterns. We investigated whether food-conditioning behavior in black bears (Ursus americanus) is inherited or learned via parent–offspring social learning. We combined genetic data with behavioral data for 116 black bears from Lake Tahoe Basin, Nevada, and Yosemite National Park, California. We categorized individual bears as food-conditioned or non–food-conditioned based on their behavior over a several-year period of intensive study at each site. We compared levels of relatedness, based on microsatellite DNA genotyping, within and between these groups and compared behavior between 9 mother–offspring pairs determined through genetic analysis of maternity. Based on 4 separate analyses of the data there was little evidence that food-conditioning behavior in black bears partitioned along related lineages, indicating that the acquisition of food conditioning behavior was not solely a function of social learning or inheritance.

The spatial and temporal distribution of food resources can profoundly affect foraging decisions and prey selection, potentially resulting in shifts in diet in response to changes in resource availability. The masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) has long been regarded as a dietary generalist that feeds primarily on fruits and small mammals. Both types of food resources may vary spatially and temporally and the diet of P. larvata is expected to change in response to variation in the availability and distribution of these resources. To address the effects of such variation on foraging by masked palm civets, we studied a population of P. larvata inhabiting a highly heterogeneous habitat in central China consisting of primary forest, selectively logged forest, logged forest, broad-leaved and coniferous forest plantations, and cultivated farmland. Available food resources included wild fruits, cultivated fruits, leaves, plant cortexes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, small mammals, molluscs, and arthropods. The abundance of these food categories varied significantly among seasons and habitats and civets altered consumption of these categories according to their temporal and spatial availability. The diversity of items consumed also varied significantly among seasons and habitats. From June to October, wild fruits were the main food of civets in forest habitats, whereas cultivated fruits were the main food in farmland. In contrast, from November to May, civets in forested habitats consumed primarily rodents and birds. Concordant with these changes was a shift from foraging in primary forest (November–May) to foraging in logged forest and farmland (June–October) that appeared to be associated with the availability of fruits. These results demonstrate the ability of civets to change their diet, both spatially and temporally, in response to changing food resources. To better understand how foraging behavior of civets varies with resource availability, similar studies should be conducted in tropical environments characterized by year-round availability of fruit.

During a study of fawn mortality, we investigated proximate factors affecting birth dates of sympatric desert mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus eremicus) and white-tailed deer (O. virginianus texanus) in west-central Texas from 2004 to 2006. We treated this aspect of the study as time-to-event survival (i.e., pregnancy to birth) and modeled the process with accelerated failure-time regression. Our best model included effects from 3 hierarchal levels: within-year variation among individuals within species, because older and heavier females gave birth earlier; among-year variation at the population level, because greater rain during the previous prerut and rut periods resulted in earlier birth dates; and a chronic-cohort effect also at the population level, because even after previous effects were accounted for in regression models, deer gave birth later on more intensely grazed ranches. After accounting for mass, age of females as a significant predictor may have indicated a behavioral phenomenon associated with social dominance. We did not find meaningful relationships between birth dates and either offspring sex or rain during gestation. Overall, Kaplan–Meier product-limit estimates indicated that birthing by white-tailed deer peaked on 20 June (90% range = 31 days) and birthing by mule deer peaked on 21 July (90% range = 45 days). We suggest that the 1-month separation between peak birth dates and breeding periods of these sympatric species of deer was partly due to phylogenetic constraint from parent populations and not localized adaptation with selection against hybridization. Prevention of genetic introgression may be a result by coincidence.

We studied sympatric populations of native bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and feral horses (Equus caballus) to quantify their spatial and temporal overlap and to determine whether horses interfered with use of water by bighorn sheep. We observed no evidence of direct competition, but our field experiment, which involved placing desert-acclimated domestic horses near watering sites used by bighorn sheep, demonstrated that bighorn sheep avoided sites with horses nearby. The presence of domestic horses near a watering site preferred by bighorn sheep resulted in a 76% reduction in the number of groups of bighorn sheep coming to water at that location and a concomitant increase in the number of bighorn sheep watering at other sites. An experimental approach to studying competition between large mammals has been problematic and to our knowledge this study constitutes the 1st manipulative field experiment to test for competitive interactions between feral horses and native ungulates.

The activity budget hypothesis is 1 of 4 main hypotheses proposed to explain sexual segregation by large herbivores. Because of their smaller body size, females are predicted to have higher mass-specific energy requirements and lower digestive efficiency than males. As a result, females are expected to forage longer to satisfy their nutritional demands. Maintaining the cohesion of a mixed-sex group with differing activity budgets and asynchronous behavioral patterns is increasingly difficult, ultimately leading to spatial segregation of males and females. We tested this hypothesis using data (2002–2005) from 3 distinct populations of African elephants (Loxodonta africana), a species that exhibits marked sexual segregation. Group and individual behaviors were assessed at discrete points in time throughout the day, with a minimum of 10 min between consecutive records. Focal samples of individual male and female elephants also were recorded, with behavioral data logged every minute for 15 min. Data were grouped into 5 behavioral categories: drinking, resting, walking, feeding, and other. Neither activity rhythms nor feeding time varied significantly between the sexes and behavioral patterns were very similar. We propose that social and environmental factors influence behavioral rhythms to a greater extent than does body size, whereas increasing feeding time is only 1 method by which elephants can improve nutritional return. This is especially pertinent when considering their generalist foraging approach, substantial energy demands, and hindgut fermentation. We conclude that the activity budget hypothesis is unlikely to be the causal mechanism in the sexual segregation of African elephants, a finding that concurs with recent experimental and field research on a range of sexually dimorphic herbivores.

Conservation of cavity-roosting bats must take into account their frequent movements among multiple roosts within a forest. One such species, Rafinesque's big-eared bat (Corynorhinus rafinesquii) is apparently rare or declining or both over its range. From 2001 through 2004 we captured C. rafinesquii at roosts located under bridges and used radiotelemetry to monitor movements of bats among roosts in southeastern Mississippi. We calculated an index of roost fidelity for individuals and compared indices based on sex, age-class, and location of capture (2 different sites). Of 25 different roost structures that we located, 14 were hollow trees and 11 were human-made (bridges, abandoned houses, and an oil tank). Overall, bats switched roosts every 2.1 days, changed roosts 2.6 ± 2.0 times (mean ± SD) per tracking period, and used 2.5 ± 1.2 roosts per tracking period. Bats that were captured together sometimes reunited at subsequent roosts. Dissimilarity in roosting opportunities between the 2 localities could have explained differences in roost fidelity among bats in the 2 areas. Roosting behavior of C. rafinesquii was comparable to that of other bats that primarily roost within tree cavities. The roosting strategy of C. rafinesquii appeared flexible; bats showed low day-to-day fidelity to roosts that were relatively common but not exceptionally stable (trees) and, in the apparent absence of tree roosts, higher fidelity to human-made roosts that were of higher structural integrity. Because C. rafinesquii moves frequently among roosts and alters fidelity by roost type, researchers should design sampling protocols and/or interpret data from surveys accordingly.

We studied variations in diet and abundance of the bat Sturnira lilium (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae) in a montane Atlantic Forest, in order to investigate if patterns in this habitat differ from those in the better-studied lowlands. The diet of S. lilium was assessed based on fecal samples, whereas possible variations in abundance were documented based on capture success. We also monitored and linked variability in air temperature to fruit production of Solanaceae, the main food of S. lilium. Bats fed exclusively on fruits, mostly on Solanaceae and occasionally on Piperaceae and Cecropiaceae. S. lilium was mostly absent in the area during the colder months, suggesting that they might migrate to lower and hence warmer elevations. Absence of the bats was not related to a distinct decline in availability of fruit of Solanaceae because fruit production was not related to temperature. We conclude that in tropical montane systems, abundance of some frugivorous bats might be affected more by air temperature than by food availability. Furthermore, we reinforce the idea that preserving elevational gradients is a crucial aspect for the conservation of migratory species.

We studied the effect of habitat type and prey availability on the foraging decisions of the Mediterranean horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus euryale), a species specialized for cluttered environments. We modeled seasonal habitat selection using radiotelemetry in relation to prey availability in a heterogeneous landscape, determined seasonal diet and prey selection, and used geographic information system data to characterize the landscape surrounding 10 breeding colonies in order to assess the radiotracking results at the population level. Although R. euryale typically has been associated with woodland, our results suggest that the existence of edge habitat, created by semicluttered structures such as hedgerows and woodland edges, was a significant factor in the choice of foraging areas by these bats. Edge habitat was associated with meadows and pastures, creating a landscape highly suited to moths, the preferred prey of R. euryale. In the study area, however, moths were evenly distributed among habitat types; therefore, distribution of moths cannot explain the preference of these bats for semicluttered habitats. The results of our study are consistent with the presumed origin of R. euryale in an edge-rich ecosystem (i.e., the savannahs of northern Africa) and establish a new paradigm for how this species uses habitat. This new paradigm, which might also apply to other members of the genus in Europe, should prompt reconsideration of the presumed habitat requirements for this species, and should be incorporated into the conservation policies for the Mediterranean horseshoe bat.

The long-fingered bat Myotis capaccinii (Bonaparte, 1837) is considered rare and is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2007). It remains one of the least studied bats in Europe. Protection of roosts is fundamental to bat conservation but, for it to be effective, knowledge about roosting ecology is required. We evaluated roosting habits, colony structure, and colony composition of M. capaccinii in the National Park of Dadia–Lefkimi–Soufli in Greece during 2002–2004 at 6 underground sites. We report results from regular capture of marked individuals and measures of roost microclimate. Individuals formed large maternity colonies in spring. Parturition began in April and by the end of May all captured females had given birth. The 1st volant young appeared in late June and almost all were weaned by the end of July. Summer colonies were sexually segregated; few males were present in the nursery roosts. Adult females began to disperse in August and the proportion of males increased through September and October. Young born in the year remained in the roosts after the females had left. M. capaccinii selected summer roosts with a wide range of temperatures, tolerating temperatures as low as 11.2°C, probably because of the thermoregulatory benefits of aggregating in single- and multispecies clusters. Few individuals remained in these sites during the winter. The majority of females appeared to reach sexual maturity in their 1st autumn and most males did so in their 2nd year. Body mass of males increased steadily from spring through to autumn, whereas mass of females only increased in the autumn before hibernation, except for the additional weight of the fetus during pregnancy, implying that reproduction imposes energetic constraints on females.

We tested the use of piezo-resistive force sensors to measure bite force in small mammals. These force sensors are thin (less than 1 mm) and can be used to measure forces up to 4,500 N. A battery-operated unit, ideal for field research, can be built easily and inexpensively. We tested this sensor in the laboratory and in the field on a variety of small mammals. Although our results indicate that the sensor is somewhat less accurate (coefficient of variation = 4%) than a conventional load cell, the small size and ease of use of the piezo-resistive detector is highly desirable. We also investigated the problem of performance and physiological condition of animals. We found the problem of lack of effort by test animals can enter a significant bias into estimates of maximal bite force.