For apicomplexan parasites using an oral-fecal transmission route with significant environmental exposure, the environmental persistence and infectivity of the oocyst has a direct impact on local infection dynamics, including the ability to withstand extended periods without readily available hosts. Herein we quantify the environmental persistence and infectivity of the oocysts of 2 septate gregarine species at controlled temperature and humidity and demonstrate that they can persist over multiple generational time spans. Species of Blabericola generally complete their endogenous life cycles from oocyst to oocyst within 10 days. The median residual environmental oocyst lifetime for Blabericola oocysts in this study is 21–28 days, but a significant number of oocysts of Blabericola migrator persisted and remained infective in the environment for up to 39 days while those of Blabericola cubensis persisted and remained infective for up to 92 days. Although long-lived relative to their own generational time, the oocysts of Blabericola species infecting cockroaches are short-lived relative to gregarines infecting tenebrionid beetles. For these gregarines, oocysts can persist in the environment and remain infective for up to 787 days. Mechanistically, environmental persistence and infectivity are probably energy-limited phenomena related to the amount of stored amylopectin and the basal metabolic rate of quiescent oocysts.

Gyrodactylus salmonis is a common ectoparasite on the fins and body of North American salmonids in fresh water. In this study, the spatial distribution of G. salmonis on 60 captive hatchery-reared rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, is reported. The highest parasite densities occurred on 5 × 5–mm² sections of the dorsal fin followed by the trunk, other fins, and the olfactory chamber, with the lowest densities on the head. The finding of infections within the olfactory chamber of 93% of the fish was unexpected. One possibility is that such infections represented spillover from high-density infrapopulations that occur on the skin and fins. However, this possibility is unlikely, because worm densities at various sites along the body surface of infected fish did not correlate with densities within the olfactory chamber. The parasite conceivably enters the chamber either via water incurrent or by crawling in from the head and subsequently remaining at this site to feed and reproduce. Results from scanning electron microscopy are consistent with physical modification to the olfactory epithelium associated with the attachment/reattachment of the opisthaptor and epithelial grazing.

A new marine leech is herein described from specimens infecting the external surfaces, including the mouth and cloaca, of the banded guitarfish, Zapteryx exasperate, captured in the Gulf of California and eastern Pacific Ocean off the coast of San Diego, California. The leech is assigned to Austrobdella by possessing continuous contractile coelomic channels that lie outside the somatic musculature along the lateral edges of the urosome (marginal lacunae), clitellar gland cells densely packed in the urosome, 5 pairs of testisacs, and 6-annulate mid-body somites. The new leech is distinguished from its 6 congeners on the basis of body size (maximum 10 mm long) and shape (sub-cylindrical trachelosome distinctly demarcated from wider urosome that is ventrally flattened, convex dorsally, and narrowing toward caudal sucker that is narrow, 20−25% of maximum body width), number of eyespots (2 pairs), shape and arrangement of the ovisacs (pyriform and limited to somites XII/XIII), and characteristics of the midgut (1 pair of mycetomes, 6 pairs of simple thin-walled crop ceca, ventral postceca wanting, and 2 pairs of dendritic diverticula emerging from anterior portion of thick-walled intestine). The new species occurs in the northeastern Pacific Ocean on a benthic elasmobranch. Examination of host specificity for each Austrobdella species using the quantitative Index of Phylogenetic Host Specificity revealed that the new species is 1 of 4 oioxenous specialists in the genus, and the remaining 3 congeners are relative generalists herein classified as euryxenous. This is the first time host specificity for members of the Piscicolidae has been quantitatively assessed. The analysis suggests that associations between marine leeches belonging in Austrobdella and their vertebrate hosts are driven by ecological influences rather than host taxonomic placement.

Two new species of quill mites of the subfamily Syringophilinae Lavoipierre (Acari: Prostigmata: Syringophilidae) are described from the Bushshrikes (Passeriformes: Malaconotidae) in the Afrotropical region: Neoaulonastus malaconotus n. sp. parasitizing Telophorus nigrifrons (Reichenow) (Malaconotidae) [type host] in Liberia and Kenya, Laniarius aethiopicus (Gmelin) in Somalia, Nilaus afer (Latham) in Kenya, and Syringophiloidus nkaii n. sp. from Nilaus afer in Kenya.

The geographical distributions and relative population densities of scrub typhus vector mites collected from small mammals were determined for 5 locations on the east coast of the Republic of Korea. Collection sites included Goseong, Gangneung, and Hoengseong in Gangwon province and Uljin and Yeongdeok in Gyeongbuk province. A total of 275 small mammals including members of Rodentia (rodents) and Soricomorpha (shrews, such as Crocidura lasiura) belonging to 4 genera and 4 species were captured in the field from 2012 to 2013. Apodemus agrarius was collected most frequently (220, 80%), followed by C. lasiura (25, 9.1%), Mus musculus (15, 5.5%), and Myodes regulus (15, 5.5%). A total of 23,436 larval chigger mites (Family Trombiculidae) belonging to 3 genera and 8 species (Leptotrombidium pallidum, Leptotrombidium scutellare, Leptotrombidium palpale, Leptotrombidium orientale, Leptotrombidium zetum, Neotrombicula tamiyai, Neotrombicula japonica, and Euschoengastica koreaensis) were collected from the small mammals. The predominant chigger species collected during the spring and fall seasons from A. agrarius were L. pallidum (57.6%), L. palpale (14.5%), and L. scutellare (7.9%). Leptotrombidium scutellare was collected only along the southeastern coast at Yeongdeok, Gyeongbuk province. The geographical distribution of scrub typhus vectors and reservoir hosts are important aspects of understanding the epidemiology of the disease as well as the potential impacts of climate change and health risks.

The life history characteristics of hosts often influence patterns of parasite infection either by affecting the likelihood of parasite exposure or the probability of infection after exposure. In birds, migratory behavior has been suggested to affect both the composition and abundance of parasites within a host, although whether migratory birds have more or fewer parasites is unclear. To help address these knowledge gaps, we collaborated with airports, animal rescue/rehabilitation centers, and hunter check stations in the San Francisco Bay Area of California to collect 57 raptors, egrets, herons, ducks, and other waterfowl for parasitological analysis. After dissections of the gastrointestinal tract of each host, we identified 64 taxa of parasites: 5 acanthocephalans, 24 nematodes, 8 cestodes, and 27 trematodes. We then used a generalized linear mixed model to determine how life history traits influenced parasite richness among bird hosts, while controlling for host phylogeny. Parasite richness was greater in birds that were migratory with larger clutch sizes and lower in birds that were herbivorous. The effects of clutch size and diet are consistent with previous studies and have been linked to immune function and parasite exposure, respectively, whereas the effect of migration supports the hypothesis of “migratory exposure” rather than that of “migratory escape.”

Meloidogyne incognita is a major plant parasite that causes root-knot disease in numerous agricultural crops. This nematode has severely affected greenhouse crops in China. Chemical insecticides are generally used to control this pest, but they have adverse environmental and human toxicity effects; hence, safe and effective strategies for controlling the root-knot nematode (RKN) are necessary. FMRFamide-like peptides (FLPs) have diverse physiological and biological effects on the locomotory, feeding, and reproductive functions of nematodes, and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase plays an important role in the regulation of transcription factors and protein kinases. These candidates are the common targets of RKN control. They are encoded by Mi-flp-18 and Mi-mpk-1 genes, respectively, in M. incognita. In this study, we used the RNA interference (RNAi) method to silence the transcription of these genes and determined the effects on the pathogenicity of RKN in potted plants. Real-time quantitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) revealed that Mi-mpk-1 gene expression could be reduced by 33% by RNAi. The RNAi-treated infective nematodes were inoculated with dsRNAs of Mi-flp-18 and Mi-mpk-1 in pot experiments. The root-knot numbers were reduced by 51% after Mi-flp-18 RNAi treatment. Further, the relative abundance of Mi-flp-18 was downregulated by 79% in the endoparasitic M. incognita. Mi-flp-18 RNAi treatment decreased egg masses by 92% and egg numbers by 58%. Mi-mpk-1 RNAi treatment reduced the root-knot numbers by 32% and, remarkably, lowered the relative abundance of Mi-mpk-1 in the endoparasitic M. incognita. Egg masses and numbers were reduced by 42 and 22%, respectively, after RKN was inoculated for 35 days with Mi-mpk-1 RNAi. Therefore, Mi-flp-18 and Mi-mpk-1 genes are susceptible to RNAi and can be used as potential targets for RKN control by regulating nematode infection, parasitism, and reproduction.

Solid-waste management is associated with several health hazards, particularly parasitic infection. The objective of the study was to determine the association between risk factors and the occurrence of intestinal parasitic infections (potentially pathogenic) among municipal waste collectors in Alexandria, Egypt. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in the main municipality company in Alexandria. A total of 346 municipality solid-waste workers (MSWWs) was interviewed using an in-depth questionnaire. The type of parasitic infections among waste handlers was determined using formol–ether concentration and modified Ziehl–Neelsen technique. About half of the workers were infected with parasites. The profile of parasitic infection revealed 12 parasitic species. These were comprised of the following helminths: Schistosoma mansoni (13.3%), Enterobius vermicularis (1.7%), Ascaris lumbricoides (1.4%), and Hymenolepis nana ova (0.6%). Among protozoa were pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica (3.2%), Giardia intestinalis (2.9%), nonpathogenic protozoa such as Entamoeba coli (1.7%), and potentially pathogenic or opportunistic ones as Cryptosporidium (23.4%), Microsporidia (20.25%), Cyclospora (2.0%), Blastocystis hominis (1.7%), and Cystoisospora belli (1.2%). About 1.4% of MSWWs have pediculosis and phthiriasis in their scalp and eyelashes respectively. Risk factors for infection were associated with direct exposure to solid fecal waste (odds ratio [OR] = 1.8, confidence interval [CI] = 1.1–3.0) and occupational activities that allowed for direct exposure to solid fecal waste (OR = 2.3, CI = 1.4–4.0). Logistic regression model has revealed that educational level and residence were the factors that contribute to parasitic infection among MSWWs (P < 0.05). MSWWs are at high risk of acquiring parasitic infections. Data of the present study highlighted the need for greater biomonitoring of MSWWs and the improvement of environmental conditions and health care in such marginalized communities to prevent parasitic infection and associated morbidities.

The Guanches, ancient inhabitants of the Canary Islands, Spain, practiced mummification of their dead. A paleoparasitological and paleogenetic analysis was conducted on mummified bodies (n = 6) (AD 1200, Cal BP 750) belonging to the Guanche culture from Gran Canaria Island. Coprolite and sediment samples (n = 19) were removed from below the abdominal region or sacral foramina. The samples were rehydrated in 0.5% trisodium phosphate solution for 72 hr at 4 C, and the paleoparasitological investigation was conducted by spontaneous sedimentation method and microscopic examination. The results revealed the presence of well-preserved eggs of Ascaris sp., Trichuris trichiura, Enterobius vermicularis, and hookworms. Ancient DNA was extracted from sediment samples to elucidate the ancestry of the mummies and for molecular detection of Ascaris sp. infection. Results of paleogenetic analysis demonstrated Ascaris sp. infection using 2 molecular targets, cytb and nad1. The mtDNA haplotypes U6b, U6b1, and HV were identified, which confirmed records of Guanche ancestry. The excellent preservation of Guanche mummies facilitated the paleoparasitological and paleogenetic study, the results of which contribute to our knowledge of Guanche culture and their health status.

Three species of Sarcocystis—S. miescheriana, S. suihominis, and S. porcifelis—have been recorded from pigs (Sus scrofa). Among these 3 species, the zoonotic species S. suihominis is of paramount importance and an important food safety issue. Previous studies indicate prevalence of porcine Sarcocystis species in India, but molecular evidence, among other evidence, is required for proper species differentiation. Myocardium from 250 stray and farm pigs destined for slaughter for human consumption were collected from slaughter shops located in urban slums in Punjab, northern India. Tissues were examined for Sarcocystis by using an intact cyst isolation method, pepsin acid digestion, Sarcocystis 18S ribosomal RNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and real-time quantitative PCR with melting curve analysis (qPCR-MCA). The combination of primers was used for 18S rRNA PCR amplification followed by sequencing. Ten representative samples were sequenced in both the directions from which 7 readable sequences were obtained for phylogenetic analysis. Sarcocystis cysts/zoites were recorded in 146 (58.4%), 169 (67.6%), 182 (72.8%), and 191 (76.4%) of samples by using intact cyst isolation, pepsin HCl digestion, conventional PCR, and qPCR-MCA, respectively. Molecularly, 1 S. miescheriana isolate and 6 isolates of the zoonotic species S. suihominis were recorded. This is the first study providing molecular identification for the presence of zoonotic species S. suihomonis in India. The prevalence of zoonotic S. suihominis in pork in India is worrisome and warrants intervention policies to stop the practice of rearing pigs under unhygienic conditions.

During October 2013, 112 fecal samples were collected from wild blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) in Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, and examined for coccidians. Coccidia were present in 46% of samples, with wildebeest shedding 60 to 18,000 oocysts per gram feces (median, 300; mean, 1,236). Five species, including 4 new species, were identified. Oocysts of Eimeria gorgonis from 18% of samples were ellipsoidal, 23 × 18.4 μm, with a length/width (L/W) ratio of 1.3, oocyst wall 1–1.5 μm thick. Micropyle, oocyst residuum, and polar granule absent. Oocysts of Eimeria donaldi n. sp. from 34% of samples were spherical to oblong, 13.4 × 12.3 μm, L/W ratio 1.1, oocyst wall 1 μm thick. Micropyle, oocyst residuum, and polar granule absent. Oocysts of Eimeria nyumbu n. sp. were ellipsoidal, 30.8 × 22.1 μm, L/W 1.4, oocyst wall 2 μm thick. Large micropyle present, oocyst residuum and polar granule absent. Oocysts of Eimeria burchelli n. sp. in 16% of samples were 34.8 × 24.4 μm, L/W 1.4, oocyst wall 2–2.5 μm thick, with a brown, lightly stippled outer layer. Micropyle present, oocyst residuum and polar granule absent. Oocysts of Eimeria sokoine n. sp. in 5% of samples were 45.8 × 29 μm, L/W 1.6, oocyst wall 3–4 μm thick with a dark brown, very rough, stippled outer layer. Micropyle present, oocyst residuum and polar granule absent. There was no apparent cross transmission of coccidia found in blue wildebeest with those generally reported to infect domestic cattle.

Metacercariae of species of Euclinostomum have been found encysted in kidney, liver, and muscles of several fish species, while adults occur in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and upper esophagus of fish-eating birds. The aim of this work was to gather molecular and morphological data from the type species, Euclinostomum heterostomum, as a starting point for needed revisions of the genus. Metacercariae were collected from cichlids in Lake Kinneret, Israel, and all were identified as E. heterostomum based on morphology. This identification was further confirmed by principal components analyses that revealed no partitions in morphometric resemblance, indicating that the material represents a single species, and that the specimens were morphometrically similar to other descriptions of E. heterostomum. In phylogenetic analysis of concatenated partial internal transcribed spacer 1 and 2, 5.8S rDNA, and partial cytochrome c oxidase I barcode sequences, the isolates of Euclinostomum obtained in this study form a single, monophyletic group separate from recently published data from Euclinostomum sp. from Thailand and from Clinostomum species, which are also monophyletic. The morphological and molecular data reported in the present work can provide a useful point of reference for future studies.

The genus Pararhinebothroides was established for a species of cestode (Parahinebothroides hobergi) found parasitizing the Tumbes round stingray, Urobatis tumbesensis (McEachran & Chirichigno), in the inshore Pacific waters in the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador. Its apparent affinities with the freshwater endemic genus Rhinebothroides were considered evidence to support the long-standing, yet controversial, biogeographical hypothesis that freshwater stingrays of the family Potamotrygonidae derived from a Pacific marine ancestor during the Cretaceous Period before the uplifting of the Andes. Here, we re-evaluate the phylogenetic and taxonomic status of P. hobergi based on examination of the available type material and newly collected material from the type host near the type locality. The new material allowed the description of tegumental structures using scanning electron microscopy and the generation of a hypothesis for the phylogenetic position of the species based on molecular data for the first time. Morphological investigations revealed that P. hobergi shares all the diagnostic features of the most recent concept of Anthocephalum, including the previously overlooked presence of bothridial apical suckers. Phylogenetic analyses based on partial 28S rDNA (D1–D3) and complete 18S rDNA sequence data for 4 specimens of P. hobergi, 45 species of other rhinebothriideans, and 5 non-rhinebothriidean outgroup species provided unequivocal support for the transfer of P. hobergi to Anthocephalum. Since this is the type and only species of the genus, Pararhinebothroides is considered a junior synonym of Anthocephalum, and Anthocephalum hobergi n. comb. is redescribed. Furthermore, our results reveal Rhinebothroides and Anthocephalum to be only distantly related among the Rhinebothriidea. Not only do our results confirm reservations expressed earlier about the affinities of P. hobergi, but they also substantially challenge inferences drawn previously about the biogeographical history of potamotrygonid stingrays based on parasitological data.

Ocular diplostomiasis is caused by trematode species in the family Diplostomidae, specifically those in the genera Austrodiplostomum, Diplostomum, and Tylodelphys. Diplostomid trematodes are globally distributed parasites of fish. Heavy infections of diplostomids that parasitize the eyes of fish can result in acute mortality while chronic infections are often characterized by impaired vision or blindness. In the southeastern United States, commercial catfish production is threatened by piscivorous birds and the many trematode species that parasitize them. The life cycles typically involve a piscivorous avian definitive host, a mollusk first intermediate host, and a fish second intermediate host. A survey of parasites infecting the snail host Biomphalaria havanensis (= B. obstructa) in catfish production ponds was undertaken. Snails were collected from 2 separate ponds during the summer of 2014 and observed for the release of trematode cercariae. A total of 1,740 snails were collected. Three distinct longifurcate pharyngeate cercariae were observed and these cercariae were characterized morphologically and molecularly. Sequencing of ∼4,200 base pairs (bp) of the nuclear ribosomal genes and ∼450 bp of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase gene revealed 3 genetically distinct species. One morphotype shared 99–100% sequence identity with metacercariae from the aqueous and vitreous humors of gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum and channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus as well as an adult trematode, Austrodiplostomum ostrowskiae, a parasite of the double-crested cormorant Nannopterum auritus. The remaining 2 cercariae morphotypes shared 99–100% sequence identity with an unidentified Tylodelphys sp. and Austrodiplostomum sp. metacercaria from the brain and eyes of several freshwater fish. Herein we molecularly link the cercaria, metacercaria, and adult stage of the life cycle of A. ostrowskiae, identifying the snail host for this parasite, in addition to providing notes on 2 cercariae representing 2 other diplostomids.

The aims of this study were to investigate the presence of Leishmania infantum and possible co-infection with Anaplasma platys, Babesia vogeli, Ehrlichia canis, and Toxoplasma gondii in the brain of 24 dogs naturally infected by L. infantum. A total of 24 mongrel adult dogs (22 clinically affected, 2 with neurological signs, and 2 subclinically infected) aged between 2 and 5 yr, naturally infected by visceral leishmaniasis, were selected. Fragments from meninges, frontal cortex, thalamus, cerebellum, and choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles and fourth ventricle were collected, mixed, and tested by real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Leishmania infantum DNA was detected in 95.8% (23/24) of the infected dogs, including the subclinically infected. A total of 14/24 (58.3%) dogs were co-infected by E. canis and L. infantum, 4/24 (16.7%) were co-infected by E. canis, B. vogeli, and L. infantum, 2/24 (8.3%) were co-infected by B. vogeli and L. infantum, and 1/24 (4.2%) dog was co-infected by E. canis, B. vogeli, T. gondii, and L. infantum. All 24 brain samples tested negative for A. platys. These results demonstrate that L. infantum is able to penetrate into the brain parenchyma, either alone or in association to other zoonotic pathogens. In addition, qPCR could be considered for adequate evaluation of Leishmania in the brain tissue of dogs with neurological signs that have died.

Until now, there has been neither an agreed-upon experimental model nor descriptors of the clinical symptoms that occur over the course of acute murine infection. The aim of this work is to use noninvasive methods to evaluate clinical signs in Swiss Webster mice that were experimentally infected with the Y strain of Trypanosoma cruzi during acute phase (Inf group). Infected mice showed evident clinical changes beginning in the second week of infection (wpi) when compared to the noninfected group (NI): (1) animals in hunched postures, closed eyes, lowered ears, peeling skin, increased piloerection, prostration, and social isolation; (2) significant decrease in body weight (Inf: 26.2 ± 2.6 g vs. NI: 34.2 ± 2.5 g) and in chow (1.5 ± 0.3 vs. 6.3 ± 0.5 mg) and water (2.4 ± 0.5 vs. 5.8 ± 0.7 ml) intake; (3) significant decrease of spontaneous activity as locomotor parameters: distance (0.64 ± 0.06 vs. 1.8 ± 0.13 m), velocity (1.9 ± 0.3 vs. 6.7 ± 1.5 cm/sec), and exploratory behavior by frequency (1.0 ± 0.5 vs. 5.7 ± 1.0 events) and duration (1.4 ± 0.3 vs. 5.1 ± 0.5 sec in central arena region); (4) significant increase in the PR (41.7 ± 8.7 vs. 27.6 ± 1.9 msec) and QT intervals (39.7 ± 2.0 vs. 27.5 ± 4.0 msec), and a decreased cardiac frequency (505 ± 52.8 vs. 774 ± 17.8 msec), showing a marked sinus bradycardia and an atrioventricular block. At 3 and 4 wpi, the surviving animals showed a tendency of recovery in body weight, food intake, locomotor activity, and exploratory interest. Through the use of noninvasive parameters, we were able to monitor the severity of the infection in individuals prior to death. Our perspective is the application of noninvasive methods to describe clinical signs over the course of acute infection complementing the preclinical evaluation of new agents, alone or in combination with benznidazole.

This study provides direct evidence for the timing of infections by Schistocephalus solidus in the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) of south-central Alaska. Young-of-the-year fish in Cheney Lake were infected during their first summer within a few months after hatching in May–June. Infections appear to continue under ice cover on the lake during the subsequent fall and winter. Few, if any, 1-yr-old fish seemed to be infected for the first time, although 1-yr-old hosts with established parasites apparently acquired additional infections.

The Olive Ridley turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829) (Testudines: Cheloniidae), is 1 of the 5 species of sea turtle found along the coast of Brazil. Little is known regarding infection by species of the family Spirorchiidae in the host, as only 1 report exists. This case report describes granulomas in different tissues associated to type 1 and 3 spirorchiid eggs in 5 L. olivacea from the Brazilian coast. The occurrence of the eggs was considered an incidental finding and may have contributed to the debility and death of the hosts. This is the second report of tissue lesions due to spirorchids eggs in this host and the first occurrence in Olive Ridley turtle from the Brazilian coast.

Baylisascaris potosis causes larva migrans in animals. The present study evaluated the prevalence of B. potosis in captive kinkajous (Potos flavus) and the ability of milbemycin to treat natural infections of B. potosis in 2 female wild-caught kinkajous. In 2012, fecal samples were collected from 16 kinkajous in 6 zoological gardens and 29 imported captive kinkajous from 4 pet traders in Japan. Although all samples from zoological gardens were negative, 8 kinkajous from traders were positive for Baylisascaris eggs, at least 4 of which were wild caught in the Republic of Guyana. No associated human illness was reported from any of the facilities. The 2 infected kinkajous received a single oral administration of Milbemycin® A Tablets, which delivers 0.69–0.89 mg/kg milbemycin oxime. Fecal examinations on days 14 and 30 were negative for Baylisascaris eggs. These results demonstrated that milbemycin oxime has possible anthelmintic efficacy against Baylisascaris roundworms in captive kinkajous. We conclude that Baylisascaris infections are highly prevalent in wild-caught kinkajous in Japan and that most of the infected kinkajous were imported from the Republic of Guyana.