Variations in diagnostic siphonal characters of Culex quinquefasciatus larvae collected in Key West and Vero Beach, FL, are described. We observed specimens with 3, 4, and 5 sets of siphonal setae and also observed frequent variation in the insertion point of the proximal and subapical setae.

Aedes albopictus is a container-breeding Stegomyia mosquito that has dispersed widely from its origins in Southeast Asia. Because Ae. albopictus is a known dengue vector and a potential vector of a variety of arboviruses and it can tolerate cooler climates than Aedes aegypti, Australian quarantine and health authorities have strategies to detect and eliminate it from international ports. Following the detection of 42 adult Ae. albopictus in BG-Sentinel traps set on Yorke island in the Torres Strait of Australia in April 2005, extensive surveys were conducted to determine the distribution of Ae. albopictus in the Torres Strait and adjoining Cape York Peninsula. A total of 17 islands and the northern peninsula area of Cape York Peninsula were surveyed by collection of larvae and pupae from flooded containers and human bait collections of adult mosquitoes with aspirators and sweep nets. Aedes albopictus was detected on 10 islands and comprised 100% of the day-biting container-breeding mosquitoes on Yorke and Stephens Islands. No Ae. albopictus were detected in the mainland sites on Cape York. Retrospective genetic analysis of larvae collected in April 2004 and April 2005 on Yorke Island indicated that Ae. albopictus was present in low densities in 2004 and that there were 3 genetically distinct mitochondrial haplotypes on Yorke Island in April 2005. Additionally, on Yorke Island there is evidence that Ae. albopictus is displacing Aedes scutellaris.

Fifty-three mosquito species belonging to 20 subgenera and 18 genera—Aedes, Anopheles, Armigeres, Culex, Downsiomyia, Finlaya, Heizmannia, Kenknightia, Lorrainea, Lutzia, Ochlerotatus, Orthopodomyia, Rhinoskusea, Stegomyia, Toxorhynchites, Tripteroides, Uranotaenia, and Verrallina—were recorded in the mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, in collections made during May and June 2001. Larvae of 43 species were collected from different mangrove habitats. Together with collections made in nonmangrove areas, 83 species in 22 subgenera and 20 genera in total were recorded of which 33 species are new records for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Rhinoskusea wardi, Fl. flavipennis, and Ve. consonensis are 3 new country records for India. Collections included topotype specimens of St. seampi. Together with species known from earlier records, the mosquito fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands is updated to 107 species in 23 subgenera and 24 genera.

New technology by ICA for chemical generation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) was evaluated in olfactometer and large outdoor cage tests against laboratory-reared Aedes aegypti for potential use in mosquito surveillance programs. The proprietary CO₂ generation system consists of a poly-Tyvek® sachet containing 2 solid ingredients. Activated sachets immediately react to generate and release predictable levels of CO₂ over time. In noncompetitive olfactometer studies, a freshly activated sachet attracted an average ± SE of 96.6 ± 0.9% of the available mosquitoes compared with 20.2 ± 6.5% for 5 ml/min CO₂ released from a compressed gas cylinder. In competitive tests, the sachet attracted 92.4 ± 1.2% compared with 0.9 ± 0.5% for the compressed gas. In the olfactometer, aged sachets attracted >90% of the available mosquitoes up to 8 h and ca. 27% 1 wk after activation. In the large outdoor cages, traps baited with activated sachets captured 2.2–5.4 times as many mosquitoes as unbaited traps, depending on time of testing after activation.

Fertility is a physiological process of great importance underlying the dynamics of mosquito populations. In transgenesis, it is a prerequisite for the production of subsequent generations and a crucial parameter for evaluating efficiency. Yet, ongoing success in mosquito vector transformation is being severely affected by low embryo survivability. In the prospect of overcoming this impediment, we investigated the darkening/hardening process of the chorion, the effects of some parameters required for transgenesis on hatch success, and erratic hatching in Aedes albopictus, a species that has not yet been targeted for transformation. The eggs from this species, when placed in a moistened environment while whitish, become dark and yet still remain soft approximately 2 h 10 min postoviposition. Those reared in a high moisture environment hatched at a high rate compared with their counterparts submitted to a drier environment. Submission of eggs to p-nitrophenyl-p′-guanidino-benzoate, a substance known to delay the darkening/delay process, resulted in a hatch rate lower than that from eggs soaked in distilled water, which suggests a negative impact on viability. Heat-shock treatment did not taint embryo viability. Overall, eggs displayed a tolerance to an hour of heat shock at 39°C but still hatched at a considerable rate after a 1 hr exposure to 42°C. Hatching was erratic, with a high rate of hatching on the initial flooding and lower rates of hatching on subsequent floodings, all of which resulted cumulatively in considerable hatch success. Our results should serve as a useful reference for the production of both transgenic and laboratory strains of floodwater Aedes mosquitoes.

Temporal changes in the abundance Culex restuans and Culex pipiens were monitored in east-central Illinois for over a decade using infusion-baited oviposition traps. The 2 species typically exhibited a seasonal shift in relative abundance with a mean crossover date (when the proportion of egg rafts from both species is equal) of August 10 or 11, depending on leap year, with a 95% confidence interval of ±10.7 days. The date of crossover was linearly related to the date of last spring frost and occurred on average about 123 days after the last spring frost. Despite the predictability of crossover, the weekly pattern in the proportion of Cx. pipiens before and after crossover varied considerably, even between years with similar crossover dates. After West Nile virus became established in our area, we found that transmission based on Culex from gravid traps did not increase until Cx. pipiens abundance increased in oviposition traps. Infection rates peaked within the half-month period after crossover. The peak in Cx. pipiens abundance in oviposition traps during this 3-year period was between the 2nd half of August and the end of September. A higher magnitude of transmission in 2002 coincided with warmer temperatures during July and August and an extended period in which the 2 Culex species were in relatively equal abundance.

We tested the effectiveness of the American Biophysics Corporation Mosquito Magnet® Pro Model (ABC-PRO) to reduce mosquito abundance in an urban (Wolseley) and in a rural (Fort Whyte) setting in Winnipeg, Manitoba in 2001 and 2002. Assessment was based on comparisons with control sites by using Centers for Disease Control (CDC) light traps and landing counts on human observers. Over a period of 94 trap nights, the ABC-PRO collected more than an estimated 2,000,000 mosquitoes of 6 species. Aedes vexans dominated trap catches in both years. Ochlerotatus sticticus was the 2nd most abundant species at the rural site in 2001, and Coquillettidia perturbans was the 2nd most abundant species in the urban site in 2002. When consideration was made for the confounding effects of wind speed and temperature, there were no significant differences in landing counts at Fort Whyte in either year, although CDC trap catches were significantly greater in the ABC-PRO location in 2001. In Wolseley, there were no significant differences in CDC trap catches in either year, although landing counts at the ABC-PRO site were significantly higher in 2002. We could not demonstrate that continuous operation of the ABC-PRO in these 2 locations in Winnipeg significantly reduced mosquito activity.

Aedes aegypti showed the ability to develop resistance to different insecticides, including temephos, the most widely used larvicide. The objectives of this work were to 1) determine the resistance value of 4 natural subpopulations of Ae. aegypti, identified by their different haplotypes, to the insecticide temephos “Abate 1G (1%)”; 2) determine the lethal concentration (LC)₅₀ and LC₉₀ values by using the Rockefeller strain as control; and 3) estimate the resistance ratios. Mosquito samples were collected in Catamarca, Córdoba, and Posadas (Argentina) and in Yacuiba (Bolivia). Six insecticide concentrations were tested. The Rockefeller strain and the Posadas sample showed susceptibility to the diagnostic concentration (0.012 mg/liter), whereas the mortality in Catamarca was 87%. In the Yacuiba and Córdoba collections, mortality was 74% and 75%, respectively, indicating resistance. These results were coincident with those of the Probit analysis from which the highest resistance ratios were estimated for the last 2 subpopulations (5.2 and 4.9, respectively). Before this study, no information was available about the existence of resistance in natural populations of Ae. aegypti in the studied area.

The impact of alternative prey and simulated vegetation on Culex annulirostris Skuse predation efficacy by Australian smelt, Retropinna semoni (Retropinnidae); crimson-spotted rainbowfish, Melanotaenia duboulayi (Melanotaeniidae); empire gudgeon, Hypseleotris compressa (Eleotridae); estuary perchlet, Ambassis marianus (Ambassidae); firetail gudgeon, Hypseleotris galii (Eleotridae); fly-specked hardyhead, Craterocephalus stercusmuscarum (Atherinidae); and Pacific blue-eye, Pseudomugil signifer (Atherinidae), was evaluated in Queensland, Australia. The presence of chironomid midge larvae and tusked frog, Adelotus brevis (Leptodactylidae), tadpoles did not have a significant negative impact on the predation rates of Cx. annulirostris by these 7 fish species. Hypseleotris galii, M. duboulayi, and R. semoni demonstrated strong preference for larvae of Cx. annulirostris over both alternative prey species. In the presence of alternative prey species, the mean predation rate of M. duboulayi on larvae of Cx. annulirostris remained greater than that of other fish species tested. When evaluated at varying densities of simulated vegetation, predation rates of all fish species were similar to those reported in open conditions.

Australian freshwater fish species Melanotaenia duboulayi and Hypseleotris galii were selected for a small plot field evaluation of an integrated pest management strategy using native fish and VectoLex® WG (Bacillus sphaericus) for the control of Culex annulirostris Skuse, the principal freshwater vector of arbovirus Ross River virus in Australia. When tested alone, the level of control afforded by M. duboulayi and H. galii was highly dependent on the prerelease density of mosquito larvae; and even when stocking rates as high as 10 g per pond (>30 kg/ha) were used, larval abundance was too high to attain adequate control from fish alone. In contrast, treatment with VectoLex WG at 500 g/ha resulted in 100% mortality of Cx. annulirostris immatures, but no residual activity was evident. The delayed reduction of Cx. annulirostris immatures in ponds stocked with fish alone, and the recolonization by Cx. annulirostris in ponds after treatment with B. sphaericus, did not occur when both treatments were combined.

Efficacy of Agnique® MMF, a monomolecular film formulation, was tested against immatures of Anopheles stephensi, an urban malaria vector in India, in simulated and natural habitats. Simulated field trials carried out in cement tanks showed 100% inhibition of adult emergence for up to 1 wk at 0.4 ml/m² and up to 3 wk at 1 ml/m². A small-scale field trial in tanks and wells at 1 and 2 ml/m² produced more than 75% reduction of late instars and 100% reduction of pupae on day 1. The reduction in pupae at 1 and 2 ml/m² lasted up to 2 wk in tanks and 5 wk in wells. These results suggest that Agnique MMF could be used as one of the choices in an urban malaria control program.

The failure to discover a significant new class of insecticides has led many researchers back to biodiscovery studies in the search for new and economically viable alternatives. After a preliminary screening of botanical extracts using descending series of concentrations (1,000, 500, 100, 50, and 5 mg/liter), 8 extracts from 2 potential botanical agents, Khaya senegalensis (Desrousseaux) and Daucus carota L., were tested against 4th instars of Culex annulirostris (Skuse) following the standard World Health Organization insecticide susceptibility methodology. The median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) values for K. senegalensis against Cx. annulirostris using acetone, ethanol, hexane, and methanol extracts were 20.12, 5.1, 5.08, and 7.62 mg/liter, respectively. The LC₅₀ values for D. carota against Cx. annulirostris using acetone, ethanol, hexane, and methanol extracts were 236.00, 36.59, 77.19, and 241.8 mg/liter, respectively. Extracts from K. senegalensis were more potent than those from D. carota against Cx. annulirostris and hexane and ethanol were the best solvents to extract essential oils from both plant species, respectively. In potency, K. senegalensis was similar to azadirachtin, but fractionation and compound isolation of the hexane extract in particular may reveal a potent phytochemical that could be compared to synthetic mosquitocides.

Mesocyclops brevisetosus Dussart and Sarnita, an indigenous copepod in Indonesia, was evaluated as a potentially useful biological control agent against larval Aedes (Stegomyia). In the laboratory, female M. brevisetosus were found to readily consume mosquito larvae of species from 3 genera (Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefaciatus, and Anopheles farauti). Mesocyclops brevisetosus preferentially fed on larvae of Ae. aegypti (mean 95% consumed), followed by Cx. quinquefasciatus (71%) and An. farauti (54%) during a 24-h period. An individual copepod consumed up to 43 1st and 2nd instars of Ae. aegypti within a 24-h period. In the field, a density of 25 adult copepods/400 ml of water in an artificial container prevented the establishment of Aedes mosquitoes by 98% compared to the control container (without copepods). A density of 50 copepods/400 ml of water completely prevented infestation with Aedes. Over a 12-wk period, evaluation of M. brevisetosus–treated ovitraps reduced Ae. aegypti by 38–100% compared to ovitraps without copepods. The introduced gravid copepods increased 2.5–6.7 times over the original cohort. Mesocyclops brevisetosus showed high fecundity in culture, with a mean of 58 nauplii produced per individual gestation cycle.

The effect of 2 mosquito traps and 2 repellent systems on the catch of adult mosquitoes in American Biophysics Corporation (ABC) light traps was evaluated over a 14-month period at 3 locations in Louisiana. Devices evaluated included 1) ABC Mosquito Magnet® with dry ice and octanol; 2) the BioSensory 500 cc Dragonfly® Biting Insect Trap with CO₂, octenol, and Mosquito Cognito®, which uses Conceal^TM inhibitor; 3) the SC Johnson OFF!® Mosquito Lantern; and 4) the ThermaCell® cordless mosquito repellent system. The number of adult mosquitoes caught in the ABC light traps, at the SC Johnson OFF!® Mosquito Lantern, and ThermaCell® cordless mosquito repellent treatment sites was significantly lower than the number collected at the ABC Mosquito Magnet or the Dragonfly/Mosquito Cognito trap system sites. When the 2 repellent devices were placed in combination with the ABC traps, mosquito numbers were significantly reduced when compared with sites with ABC traps alone. These data indicate that the SC Johnson OFF! Mosquito Lantern and ThermaCell cordless mosquito system may reduce attack from biting mosquitoes due to the reduction in their numbers. In the same study, the mosquito counts of the trapping devices also were reported.

EcoBio-Block® S, a novel controlled release system (CRS) for the insect growth regulator pyriproxyfen, uses a water-purifying concrete block system (EcoBio-Block) composed of a porous volcanic rock and cement, and it incorporates the aerobic bacterial groups of Bacillus subtilis natto. EcoBio-Block S showed high inhibitory activity against mosquito emergence as well as a water-purifying effect. Chemical analysis and bioassay showed that EcoBio-Block S provides a high-performance CRS that controls the release of pyriproxyfen at low levels according to “zero order kinetics.”

In total, 43 aerial spray missions were conducted in 26 Florida counties to control mosquito populations after each of the 4 hurricanes making landfall in Florida in 2004. Mosquitoes were trapped before and after each spray mission to determine the percentage (%) of control for the West Nile virus vector Culex nigripalpus (64.1%), the floodwater pest mosquito Psorophora columbiae (69.7%), and for all species combined (67.7%). A discussion on these results and suggestions for future efforts are presented.

Effects of sublethal exposure to 0.1% boric acid sugar bait on adult survival, host-seeking, bloodfeeding behavior, and reproduction of Stegomyia albopicta were studied in the laboratory. Survival of males as well as females was significantly reduced when exposed to the bait, compared to control adults. The host-seeking and bloodfeeding activities in the baited females decreased, but the mean duration of blood engorgement (probing to voluntary withdrawal of proboscis) was not significantly different between the baited and control females. The landing and biting rates (human forearm) were significantly reduced in the baited females compared to nonbaited controls. Fecundity and fertility (based on number of laid eggs per female and percentage egg hatch, respectively) in the baited females were significantly reduced, and ovarian development was retarded. Sublethal exposure to sugar-based boric acid bait has the potential to reduce adult populations of St. albopicta.

Wind tunnel experiments showed that secondary pickup of insecticide residue by mosquitoes in cage bioassays had a significant effect on mortality. Cage bioassays using adult Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus (Wiedemann) investigated the effect of exposure time to a contaminated surface. Cages were dosed in a wind tunnel using the LC₅₀ for naled (0.124 mg a.i./ml)^1, and an LC₂₅ (0.0772 mg a.i./ml)¹ for naled. Half of the bioassay mosquitoes were moved directly into clean cages with the other half remaining in the sprayed, hence contaminated, cage. Treatment mortality was assessed at 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, and 1,440 min postapplication. Cage contamination had a significant effect on mosquito mortality for both the LC₂₅ and LC₅₀ between 15 and 30 min postapplication.

Insecticide and resistance bioassays and microplate assays were performed on Culex pipiens mosquitoes to determine the level and mechanisms of resistance. Culex pipiens larvae were collected from three filariasis-endemic areas of Egypt and reared to adults for subsequent production and testing of F₁ generation larvae and adults. Bioassays were performed using World Health Organization (WHO) methods with the diagnostic doses of 6 organophosphate insecticides for larvae and 1 organochlorine (OC), 4 pyrethroid, 2 organophosphate, and 2 carbamate insecticides for adults. Microplate assays were performed to measure levels of beta esterase, acetylcholinesterase, insensitive acetylcholinesterase, oxidases, and glutathione-S-transferase enzymes. Larval bioassay results showed clear indications of resistance to organophosphate insecticides. Adult bioassays also showed widespread, significant resistance to many insecticides from all four classes, including the OC, DDT. The Qalubiya larval population was susceptible only to malathion, whereas Sharkiya larvae were susceptible to malathion, temephos, and chlorpyrifos. On the other hand, larval specimens from Assiut were resistant to all insecticides tested. Larval bioassay results were supported by those of microplate assays in showing elevated levels of glutathione S-transferase in populations from all three areas. In general, microplate results confirmed patterns of resistance observed using bioassays, and mechanisms of resistance were evident for all three areas sampled. Mechanisms of resistance are discussed in relation to microplate and bioassay results for the areas sampled and pesticides used.

We tested a lemon eucalyptus–based repellent against the biting midge Leptoconops carteri Hoffman in the Central Valley of California. This relatively new active ingredient has demonstrated high efficacy in a number of studies with mosquitoes. Ten subjects tested spray and lotion formulations on 2 consecutive days, along with a deet-positive control and an untreated control, with 6 h of continuous exposure per treatment. Half of the eucalyptus subjects received no bites, and the true median protection time probably exceeded the test duration.

An overview is presented of the recent advancements in research activities conducted to evaluate mosquito traps, insecticide-impregnated targets baited with combinations of attractants, and strategies for using mass trapping techniques for adult mosquito population management. Technologies that use semiochemicals (attractants), traps and targets, and mass trapping are relatively new for management of adult mosquito populations. To date, emphasis has been placed primarily on developing barriers of attractant-baited and insecticide-impregnated targets. The most successful continuous use of this type of technology has been at Stevens' Landing, Collier County, Florida. Recently, commercially available traps have been evaluated for their ability to reduce nuisance populations of mosquitoes. Whereas use of Mosquito Magnet^TM Pro (MM-Pro) traps along a nature trail on an isolated island (Atsena Otie) in the Gulf of Mexico resulted in a significant reduction in annoyance caused by the black salt-marsh mosquito, Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus (Wied.), a perimeter of the same traps did not result in the same level of mosquito reduction in a residential area in Gainesville, FL.

Boric acid (1%) in 5% sugar water bait solution was applied as a spray to the foliage, stems, and other surfaces of plants for control of adult Aedes albopictus, Culex nigripalpus, and Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus. Initial studies outdoors in small (1.42-m³) screened cages showed that exposure of male and female mosquitoes to 1% boric acid bait for 48 h resulted in 80 to 100% mortality in Ae. albopictus and ≥98% mortality in Cx. nigripalpus and Oc. taeniorhynchus. At 48 h posttreatment, in large (1,178-m³) outdoor screened cages, 1% boric acid bait applied as a spray to plant surfaces significantly reduced the landing rates of Ae. albopictus and Cx. nigripalpus on a human subject as well as the numbers of these two species captured in mechanical traps, compared with responses for adults exposed to 5% sugar water solution only (control). Boric acid bait treatments in large screened cages did not significantly reduce landing rates or trap captures of Oc. taeniorhynchus. The application of boric acid baits to plant surfaces may be an effective adulticidal method for selected species of pest and disease vector mosquitoes.

Pyrethroid-treated bed-nets act against late-night biting mosquitoes, like traps baited by the body odor of the occupant. The personal protective effect of treated nets is considerable, even if they are torn. However, some biting of the occupants does occur, as shown by matching microsatellite alleles in mosquito blood meals to those of net occupants. When whole communities were provided with treated nets, ovarian age grading showed that mosquito survival was reduced, and so was the number of sporozoite-positive mosquitoes in malarious communities. Thus, a high percentage of coverage of all members of malaria-endemic communities is considered to be the most effective way of providing protection for highly malaria-vulnerable children and pregnant women. Teams distributing nets or retreating them free of charge show high productivity, and we consider this the most cost-effective way to proceed. There is evidence for reduced anti-malaria antibody levels in children in communities where treated nets have long been used. However, overall benefits in reduced anemia and mortality are sustained. A high frequency of the kdr resistance gene has not prevented pyrethroid-treated nets from functioning, but it is important to develop alternative fabric treatments in case stronger forms of resistance emerge.

para-Menthane-3,8-diol(PMD) is a monoterpene spent product of the distillation of leaves of the Australian lemon-scented gum tree (updated nomenclature Corymbia citriodora ssp. citriodora). In April 2005, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) endorsed two non-deet mosquito repellents, including PMD. However, few mosquito professionals have in-depth familiarity with the history and efficacy of PMD. In this article, we describe the origin and development of PMD as a repellent and offer a comprehensive review of its performance against Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, and Ochlerotatus. In addition, we present original data from field and laboratory studies involving large numbers of subjects and comparisons with high-concentration deet and other repellents. We conclude that not only is the CDC endorsement warranted but also that it probably underestimates the value of PMD as a deet alternative for public health applications.

The larvicidal activity and repellency of 5 plant essential oils—thyme oil, catnip oil, amyris oil, eucalyptus oil, and cinnamon oil—were tested against 3 mosquito species: Aedes albopictus, Ae. aegypti, and Culex pipiens pallens. Larvicidal activity of these essentials oils was evaluated in the laboratory against 4th instars of each of the 3 mosquito species, and amyris oil demonstrated the greatest inhibitory effect with LC₅₀ values in 24 h of 58 µg/ml (LC₉₀  =  72 µg/ml) for Ae. aegypti, 78 µg/ml (LC₉₀  =  130 µg/ml) for Ae. albopictus, and 77 µg/ml (LC₉₀  =  123 µg/ml) for Cx. p. pallens. The topical repellency of these selected essential oils and deet against laboratory-reared female blood-starved Ae. albopictus was examined. Catnip oil seemed to be the most effective and provided 6-h protection at both concentrations tested (23 and 468 µg/cm²). Thyme oil had the highest effectiveness in repelling this species, but the repellency duration was only 2 h. The applications using these natural product essential oils in mosquito control are discussed.

CuniNPV is a pathogen of Culex mosquitoes, vectors of West Nile virus and other forms of encephalitis. Successful development of CuniNPV requires an efficient production system and formulated product that incorporates magnesium, an essential component for transmission. It may be possible to develop mosquito baculoviruses as a new type of biopesticide by microencapsulating the virus and magnesium into formulations that would be effective regardless of the water quality. In addition, this new insight on transmission may facilitate the discovery and development of additional baculoviruses for the control of other important mosquito vectors. Biological mining of the CuniNPV genome and investigations to understand virus–mosquito interactions at the molecular level offer exciting possibilities for the development of novel mosquito control strategies and tools. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of infection will provide the opportunity to devise new control strategies, for example, compromising the defensive systems of the mosquito (proteases for the peritrophic matrix) or exploiting receptors used by the virus to specifically deliver toxins to mosquito larvae via the midgut. As additional baculovirus genomes become available, comparative genomics could lead to a more informed understanding of how the virus exploits its host as well as the factors responsible for the genus-specific host range of most known mosquito baculoviruses.

Pestiferous mosquito problems and control solutions were reported as early as ancient Greek literature. In the 19th century, it was discovered that these same mosquitoes carried diseases (malaria, dengue) that had until then been attributed to “dirty” water and swamp gases. Until relatively recently, in both urban and rural areas in the United States, the lack of effective mosquito control often drove humans and animals indoors or into nearby rivers to escape the hordes of blood-sucking mosquitoes. Early mosquito control methods included source reduction, mosquito-eating fish, and chemicals. These methodologies continue today, in a much more sophisticated manner, but following the principles first laid down by early 20th century medical entomologists such as L. O. Howard. This article explores mosquito larval control practices from the 1900s to the present.

Source reduction as part of an integrated pest management program is a cornerstone of the American Mosquito Control Association's Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program Strategy Document to reduce pesticide risk. Since the early 1980s, Florida has made important strides in implementing environmentally sound source reduction strategies in salt marshes while managing them for both mosquito control and natural resource enhancement. The political mechanism for this progress has been interagency cooperation through the Florida Coordinating Council on Mosquito Control and its Subcommittee on Managed Marshes. Challenges in accomplishing source reduction continue because both public and private lands are involved. Public lands include those owned by federal (e.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service), state (Florida Department of Environmental Protection), and local governments, and they have a diversity of management objectives. This diversity adds to the challenge facing mosquito control agencies in providing mosquito control services while protecting and enhancing the environment.

A community-based dengue vector control trial was conducted at transmission foci in Plaeng Yao District, Chachoengsao Province, eastern Thailand. Implementation was done by the local community in collaboration with local administration, public health, and school authorities. Our cost-effective approaches combined a source reduction campaign with appropriate vector control technologies applied within the foci (within 100 m around the foci) and also within schools attended by children from the treated areas. Vector management measures by local government included cleanup campaigns before the rainy season followed by a routine garbage pickup during the rainy season. Locally made screen covers for water jars, a combination of local Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis and Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides (copepod), and locally made lethal ovitraps were appropriate technologies used by the community in this campaign. The success of our intervention was evidenced by the significant reduction of dengue vectors and dengue hemorrhagic fever cases in treated areas compared with untreated areas.

The pupa of Culex salinarius is redescribed with updated chaetotaxal nomenclature and a full illustration. The pupal chaetotaxy of Cx. salinarius and the similar species Culex nigripalpus is compared.

The latest checklist of Delaware mosquito species was published in 1951 and included 39 species from 10 genera. Since that time, 18 additional species have been recorded, including two newly introduced species, one species that was derived from a new species complex, one species resurrected from taxonomy, and 14 species that represented new observations. Brief notes are provided for the 18 additional species included in this checklist.

We record the spatial and temporal distribution of 8 potential vectors of West Nile virus (WNV) on Vancouver Island in 2003 and 2004. Five species were widely distributed, but the other 3 were restricted to specific larval habitats. Adults were trapped from early April to September. The findings indicate a potential for WNV transmission if the virus arrives on the island. The results extend the published range of 5 mosquito species.

Outbreaks of West Nile virus on a Florida alligator farm prompted an investigation of which species of mosquitoes were feeding on the animals at the farm. Mosquitoes were collected on 4 separate overnight trips in September and October 2003 by using CO₂-baited Centers for Disease Control light traps and wooden resting boxes that were placed inside or near the alligator housing pens. Mosquitoes were identified to species, bloodfed individuals were separated, and their abdomens were removed for DNA extraction. The DNA was tested to determine the vertebrate origin of the blood meal by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification by using 4 primer sets specific to crocodilians, alligators, mammals, and birds. PCR products were sequenced to identify hosts. Of the 37 mosquito blood meals tested, 13 blood meals were positively identified to species, and 7 blood meals of those 13 were from Alligator mississippiensis, the American alligator. Alligator blood was found in Culex erraticus, Mansonia dyari, and Ma. titillans, and to our knowledge, this represents the first report of these mosquito species feeding on American alligators.

Culex erythrothorax larvae were collected from a bulrush-cattail marsh near Moab, Grand County, Utah, October 28, 2004, and found positive for West Nile virus (WNV) RNA by real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). This demonstrates WNV vertical transmission in this species in the wild and suggests that vertical transmission in overwintering Cx. erythrothorax larvae may contribute to WNV overwintering.

Believing that science is about precision in defining its terms, we propose the use of breeding as an all-encompassing term for mosquito activity does not always represent the reality of what is happening at a site where mosquitoes, in whatever stage, are present. We explore the breadth of the term breeding and propose alternative, more accurate uses for those who write about mosquitoes. We offer samples of what we see as a misuse of the word and provide what we feel is more scientifically acceptable terminology.

Pupal surveys have been advocated as an alternative or surrogate surveillance method for estimating densities of adult Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Usually, this survey strategy has required that collected pupae eclose to adults before attempting species identification. Using the pupal survey method in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, this rearing step was obviated with the pupal morphological key described herein for identifying preserved or live pupae. Examination of pupae for the identification of various container-inhabiting mosquito genera and target aedine species proved to be accurate and far less time-consuming and problematic than rearing pupae to adults.

A delayed release mechanism was designed for a mark–recapture study that evaluated the flight behavior of anopheline mosquitoes in Belize, Central America. The design prevents marked mosquitoes from being released until after a set time. The time lag allows researchers to return to collecting posts before release and reduces the potential of marked females tracking an odor plume generated during the release procedure. This is especially important in study designs evaluating temporal host-seeking behavior patterns. Detailed descriptions of the design are presented.