A checklist of 62 species of mosquitoes found in Pennsylvania is presented. In addition, new state records for 9 species are as follows: Aedes aegypti, Anopheles earlei, Culiseta minnesotae, Ochlerotatus atlanticus/Oc. tormentor, Oc. dupreei, Oc. infirmatus, Oc. thibaulti, Psorophora howardii.

Mosquito species occurring in Bellary district, Karnataka, India were surveyed for Japanese encephalitis (JE) and West Nile virus (WNV) from 2001 to 2003. A total of 37 mosquito species in 6 genera were recovered from larval and adult habitats. Aedes, Anopheles and Culex were represented by 11 species each, Mansonia by 2 species, and Armigeres and Lutzia by a single species. A total of 68,506 mosquitoes belonging to 20 species were collected at dusk. Most (74.6%) were Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and occurred in 2 peaks of abundance in February (304 per man hour density [PMHD]) and October (465 PMHD). The mosquito fauna of Bellary district is not diverse, possibly because of the hot and dry climatic conditions in the area.

Pupal sexes of the most common mosquito species were determined in the course of biweekly censuses (with replacement) of the contents of 3–7 tree holes from 1980–2003 in Vero Beach, FL. A significant (P < 0.001) male bias was detected over this period for the most abundant species, Aedes triseriatus. No significant deviation from a 1∶1 sex ratio was detected among pupae of Toxorhynchites rutilus or Ae. albopictus, the latter species occurring in this community only since 1991. Although pupae of Ae. triseriatus were recorded during every month of the year, significant male biases were detected only in February–May, August, and December. These results are interpreted in the context of multivoltinism and the previously documented differential sensitivity of male and female eggs of this species to hatching stimuli. Sex-specific responses to hatching stimuli are judged to be present but less pronounced in eggs of Ae. albopictus. Male biases in container Aedes are likely associated with sexual selection, which may also explain seasonal changes in sex ratios, whereby early males compete to mate with high-fecundity females. The overproduction of Ae. triseriatus males may be counterbalanced by increased fitness of females, which are known to predominate in delayed hatches.

Haemagogus tropicalis is strictly a forest-dwelling species from the fertile valley area of the Amazônia forest. It is a diurnal mosquito, and the oviposition sites for the species include tree holes. The eggs of Hg. tropicalis used in this study were from females captured on Combú Island, situated across from the city of Belém, Guajará Bay, state of Pará, at 1°25′S latitude and 48°25′W longitude. The eggs are elliptical and ∼575 µm long with a width of ∼144 µm. The ventral surface of the chorionic reticulum has regular chorionic cells with hexagonal and sometimes pentagonal ornamentation. Each chorionic cell has a thick external chorionic reticulum with regular borders. The interior of the chorionic cells have small, evenly distributed tubercles, and the dorsal external chorionic reticulum appears porous. The micropylar apparatus, located on the anterior area of the egg, was formed by a collar with a well-developed frame. Centrally, the micropylar disc had a diameter of ∼20 µm and the micropylar orifice is 2.1 µm in diameter. These data may enable construction of taxonomic keys for identifying eggs of Haemagogus species.

Parity rate, gonotrophic cycle length, and density of a Culex quinquefasciatus female population was estimated at the Parque Ecológico do Tietê (PET), São Paulo, Brazil. Adult Cx. quinquefasciatus females were collected from vegetation along the edges of a polluted drainage canal with the use of a battery-powered backpack aspirator from September to November 2005 and from February to April 2006. We examined 255 Cx. quinquefasciatus ovaries to establish the parity rate of 0.22 and determined the gonotrophic cycle length under laboratory conditions to be 3 and 4 days. From these data, we calculated the Cx. quinquefasciatus survival rate to be 0.60 and 0.68 per day. Density of the Cx. quinquefasciatus female (5.71 females per m²) was estimated based on a population size of 28,810 individuals divided by the sampled area of 5,040 m². Results of all experiments indicate medium survivorship and high density of the Cx. quinquefasciatus female population. This species is epidemiologically relevant in the PET area and should be a target of the vector control program of São Paulo municipality.

The prevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) was determined in mosquitoes between November 2002 and October 2004 in East Baton Rouge Parish, LA. A total of 244,374 female mosquitoes were collected and tested by viral isolation. Additionally, 131,896 female mosquitoes were collected in 2003 and tested by VecTest and 167,175 female mosquitoes were collected in 2004 and tested by reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). West Nile virus was isolated by cell culture from 17 (47.2%) out of 36 mosquito species collected over the study period. In 2003, WNV was detected in 9 (33.3%) out of 27 species tested by VecTest. In 2004, 14 (50%) out of the 28 mosquito species tested by RT-PCR were positive for WNV. The species with the greatest number of WNV-positive pools detected by all 3 testing methods was Culex quinquefasciatus. A significantly greater proportion of Cx. salinarius pools collected in light traps placed at a 3-m height were positive for WNV by viral isolation than in pools collected in light traps placed at a 1.5-m height.

Distribution of mosquito larvae in inundated rice fields is poorly known despite its profound implications in implementation of vector control programs. Based on oviposition behavior of gravid females and biotic and abiotic conditions of the rice field, distribution of mosquito larvae within the paddy may vary greatly. As a guide to implementation of mosquito vector control program targeting the aquatic stages in the rice fields in Mwea, studies were conducted to determine the distribution of mosquito larvae within the paddy. Twenty-eight cages measuring 50 cm³ were distributed randomly within the paddy during the transplanting stage of the rice growth cycle, and were examined twice per week up to the flowering stage to determine mosquito oviposition pattern. A total of 17,218 mosquito larvae were collected at the periphery and a further 17,570 at the center of the paddy. These comprised 7,461 larvae from the genus Anopheles and 27,327 from genus Culex. The number of pupae collected at the periphery was 1,004 and 1.5 times greater than the number collected at the center. Significantly higher counts of Anopheles larvae were collected at the center (1.00 ± 0.11) than at the periphery (0.55 ± 0.05) of the paddy during transplanting stage, but the difference was not significant during the tillering stage. In contrast, significantly higher numbers of Culex larvae were collected from the periphery (3.09 ± 0.39) than at the center (2.81 ± 0.24) of the paddy. More pupae were also collected at the center than at the periphery of the paddy. These findings indicate the distribution of Anopheles and Culex larvae in rice fields to be nonrandom; however, for successful achievement of an integrated vector control program targeting the diverse mosquito fauna occurring in rice fields, there is need to target the whole paddy for larvicidal application.

In October 2004, the Florida Department of Health (FLDOH) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) assessed human exposure to ultra-low volume (ULV) aerial application of naled. Teams administered activity questionnaires regarding pesticide exposure and obtained baseline urine samples to quantify prespray naled metabolite levels. Following the spray event, participants were asked to collect postspray urine specimens within 12 h of the spray event and at 8-h intervals for up to 40 h. Upon completion, a postspray activity questionnaire was administered to study participants. Two hundred five (87%) participants completed the study. The urine analysis showed that although 67% of prespray urine samples had detectable levels of a naled metabolite, the majority of postspray samples were below the limit of detection (<LOD). Only at the “postspray 6” time period, which corresponds to a time greater than 5 half-lives (>40 h) following exposure, the number of samples with detectable levels exceeded 50%. There was a significant decrease in naled metabolites from prespray to postspray ( = .02), perhaps associated with a significant reduction (≤0.05) in some participants that may have resulted in pesticide exposure by means other than the mosquito control operations. These data suggest that aerial spraying of naled does not result in increased levels of naled in humans, provided the naled is used according to label instructions.

Lethal ovitraps (LO) have been successfully deployed in dengue control operations in north Queensland, Australia since 2004. However, the current plastic-bucket LO must be retrieved before the pesticide-treated strip degrades and the trap begins producing mosquitoes. The logistics involved with trap retrieval are considerable and include recording trap location and retrieval date onto a database, locating and retrieving each trap, and examining lethal ovitraps for eggs. Collectively, these necessary activities greatly reduce the efficiency of dengue control. In response, we have developed a biodegradable lethal ovitrap (BLO) that does not need to be retrieved for the control of container-breeding Aedes, particularly Aedes aegypti. The BLOs were made by injection molding with the use of 2 proprietary blends of thermoplastic starch (TPS) polymer based on plasticised amylose maize polymers. In field trials, Ae. aegypti readily oviposited in BLOs, with those dyed black with the use of carbon black preferred. Water loss was higher in BLOs than in standard plastic LO because of weeping from the walls, although none of the BLOs failed in the 5 wk of the trial. The occurrence and rate of Ae. aegypti oviposition in both BLOs and the LO was comparable. In an accelerated standard composting trial (ISO16929:2002E), both BLOs fragmented within 4 wk, and no BLO particles were visible after 12 wk. Large numbers of BLOs could be deployed in a “set it—and forget it” strategy to control Ae. aegypti and to stop dengue transmission, and could be used in a community participation program to maximize coverage.

An outdoor test was conducted to evaluate initial efficacy and longevity of water-soluble pouches of Bacillus sphaericus (VectoLex WSP and VBC60035 WSP), applied as prehatch treatment against Culex species in simulated catch basins. Both VectoLex WSP and VBC60035 WSP, applied at 1 pouch (10 g) per basin (single treatment), yielded significant immediate and long-term (>90% for 203 days) control of late instars of Culex mosquitoes. Consistent and complete control of pupae (100%) as a result of larval mortality was clearly indicated for 70 days posttreatment. Control levels varied but remained high and significant on most sampling days afterwards. Exuviae counts also indicated complete control (100%) for 70 days posttreatment. Control levels indicated by exuviae counts, however, were not significant for most sampling days beyond this sampling day, because of low counts in the untreated controls. No significant differences were indicated in efficacy between VectoLex WSP and VBC 60035 WSP. The test was conducted under highly challenging conditions, such as prehatch treatment, highly polluted water, and frequent flushing. Spore counting in water and sludge samples verified the presence of B. sphaericus spores on day 196 posttreatment, after 28 flushes. The results strongly indicate that WSP formulation of B. sphaericus could be one of the best candidates for controlling larvae of Culex mosquitoes developing in catch basins, with significant initial and residual efficacy.

The fecundity and survival of 6 copepod species were assessed under laboratory conditions in order to choose the best candidates to control the aquatic stages of dengue mosquitoes in the field. Females of all the 6 species (Mesocyclops aspericornis, Mesocyclops pehpeiensis, Mesocyclops woutersi, Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides , Mesocyclops ogunnus ,and Megacyclops viridis) mated more than once. Multiple mating resulted in increased egg production. The reproductive ability and longevity varied among the species, and M. aspericornis had the highest values. The lowest values were observed in M. thermocyclopoides. Multiple mating of males of M. aspericornis was also observed. The paternal fecundity decreased with each additional mating. There was no difference in the paternal fecundity between the males that mated at low and high female frequencies. The sperm stored in the M. aspericornis females remained viable for 30 days after storage under moist conditions at 25°C or 15°C. This feature in M. aspericornis represents an additional positive factor indicating that this species is a good biological agent for controlling mosquito larvae, especially in domestic water containers that may dry intermittently.

A 3-year study was conducted to assess mosquito production in structural stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) installed by the California Department of Transportation in San Diego and Los Angeles Counties. Thirty-seven BMPs were monitored weekly for presence and relative abundance of immature mosquitoes and for conditions conducive to mosquito production. Species identified were Aedes squamiger, Anopheles franciscanus, An. hermsi, Culex quinquefasciatus, Cx. stigmatosoma, Cx. tarsalis, Culiseta incidens, and Cs. inornata. Structures designed with accessible, permanent sources of standing water in sumps, vaults, or basins were observed to support immatures all year. In BMPs intended to drain rapidly and completely, observed larval habitats resulted from design features, component failure, construction flaws, and non-stormwater runoff flows. Specific nonchemical mitigation measures to minimize or eliminate mosquito production were developed, implemented, and evaluated. This study provides a 1st assessment of mosquito production, species composition, and nonchemical control measures in structural stormwater BMPs in southern California.

In response to increasing evidence of mosquito production in structural stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs), a collaborative project was developed to document the occurrence, species composition, and seasonal abundance of mosquitoes from selected urban and highway BMPs in the Lake Tahoe Basin, California. Structural and environmental factors associated with mosquito production in highway BMPs were identified and analyzed. Ten species of mosquitoes were collected from 47 BMPs, including Culex tarsalis, Culiseta incidens, Cs. inornata, and 7 species of Aedes. In and around South Lake Tahoe, immatures were most abundant in urban BMPs during the warmer summer and fall months, whereas natural water sources in the surrounding area harbored mosquitoes more often during the colder months of early spring. In BMPs installed along Lake Tahoe's perimeter highways, mosquitoes were observed in 11% of site visits conducted during a single season. Larval presence in highway BMPs was positively associated with water temperature and negatively associated with precipitation, sand, and unspecified organic matter. The significance of mosquito production in BMPs of the Tahoe Basin and the potential for increased transmission of mosquito-borne disease are discussed.

A widely recommended strategy to minimize mosquito production in structural stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) is to ensure they hold captured water for no more than 72 h. However, this standard may be overly conservative for many mosquito species found in urban environments and may impede or prevent the capacity of BMPs to fulfill more stringent water quality standards in environmentally sensitive areas. Egg-to-pupa development of Culex tarsalis, Cx. pipiens, and Cx. quinquefasciatus were examined during July, August, and September 2006 in stormwater management basins and in water collected from these basins in 3 climatically distinct regions of California: the Lake Tahoe Basin, Sacramento Valley, and Los Angeles Basin. The observed minimum times to pupal development were 6 days for Cx. tarsalis and Cx. quinquefasciatus and 8 days for Cx. pipiens. Multiple linear regression models were used to estimate minimum predicted development times under optimal conditions for each region. The results suggest that water residence times of up to 96 h will not significantly increase the potential for Culex mosquito production in stormwater BMPs in the 3 regions included in this study.

Simulated stormwater management devices baited with alfalfa infusion were constructed to test conveyance pipe dimension and orientation as a potential deterrent to mosquito oviposition. Various configurations of pipe diameter, length, and orientation were evaluated based on egg raft counts. Field trials tested pipes of 1.3-, 5-, and 10-cm diam and 0-, 90-, or 270-cm lengths, in both horizontal and vertical orientations. Additional trials of 10-cm-diam horizontal pipe evaluated the effects of a 90° bend, single or dual entry points, and lengths greater than 270 cm. Significantly fewer egg rafts were collected in pipes of smaller diameter and longer length in both horizontal and vertical orientations. A 90° bend or removal of an entry point to pipes of fixed length had no significant effect on oviposition. A maximum tested length of 24.4 m did not preclude oviposition. The results of this study suggest that manipulating diameter and length of conveyance pipe in stormwater management devices may not be an effective strategy to deter oviposition. The need for integrating improved, novel, nonchemical mosquito control measures into designing and operating stormwater management structures is discussed.

An apparent natural introduction and establishment of a population of Anopheles walkeri into an ecological research site is documented. Likelihood of introduction by human activity is discussed.

Twenty-two species, 21 in Ochlerotatus, were erroneously omitted from Table 3 in Identification and Geographical Distribution of the Mosquitoes of North America, North of Mexico. A table is given to correct the error.

In 2006, Ochlerotatus japonicus was found in Kelso, WA and Portland, OR. These are the southernmost collections of Oc. japonicus on the west coast of the USA. Though the methods of dispersal are not fully understood, it is evident that Oc. japonicus is expanding its distribution in the Pacific Northwest.

An ovitrap with a time-segregated entrance was used to separate eggs laid by Aedes sierrensis females according to the time of day that females entered the ovitrap. During a 37-day period in Lake County, CA, females that entered the ovitrap between sunrise and sunset laid 82% of the total number of eggs collected. A daily peak in oviposition (eggs per hour) was produced by females that entered during the 2-h period ending at sunset. Overall, females that oviposited had entered the ovitrap throughout the diel cycle except for a 2-h period ending at sunrise. Those eggs laid by females that entered the ovitrap between 2 h after sunset and 2 h before sunrise provided the 1st evidence that Ae. sierrensis females are capable of locating oviposition sites during the night.

We used geographic information system (GIS) and long-term mosquito surveillance data from Lake, Pasco, Manatee, and Sarasota Counties, FL, to look at patterns of invasion by Aedes albopictus and concurrent changes in resident Ae. aegypti. We investigated environmental factors associated with population changes in these species with the use of satellite climate data. Aedes aegypti densities attenuated rapidly following the arrival of Ae. albopictus in most counties, yet both species persisted in equilibrium in Manatee County. We discuss the relative importance of rainfall, habitat, and proximity to urban areas in the population dynamics of these species in sympatry.

Hibernating females of the Anopheles hyrcanus complex were collected at 4 different latitudes at the end of the hibernation period in March of 2005 and 2006, and species were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) identification. At Paju (37.8°N; average temperature in December–February  =  −3.5°C) 74.6% of the females collected were An. pullus and 22.4% were An. sinensis. At Seosan (36.8°N; December–February average temperature  =  −1.0°C) and Buan (35.7°N; December–February average temperature  =  0.4°C) 14.7% and 14.8% were An. pullus, and 85.3% and 85.2% were An. sinensis, respectively. At Haenam (34.6°N; December–February average temperature  =  3.1°C) only An. sinensis was found. Our preliminary results indicate that An. sinensis, unlike An. pullus, is not adapted to survive in cold weather.

In this study, the activity of cyromazine was evaluated following WHO standard procedures against susceptible and resistant mosquito strains of Anopheles gambiae, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Aedes aegypti. The dose for 50% and 90% inhibition of adult emergence (IE₅₀ and IE₉₀) ranged from 0.028 mg/liter to 0.17 mg/liter and from 0.075 mg/liter to 0.42 mg/liter, respectively. The effects of cyromazine were closer to that of chitin synthesis inhibitors rather than that of juvenile hormone analogues, with only 10–20% pupal mortality. The toxicity of cyromazine was not strongly affected by the presence of common resistance mechanism, i.e., Kdr mutation and Ace.1^R (resistance ratio from 0.5 to 2.3). The absence of cross resistance with common insecticides (pyrethroids, carbamates, organophosphates) makes cyromazine a potential candidate for disease vector control, especially for the management of insecticide resistance.

The concentrations of permethrin in the Aqua-Reslin® formulation stored in the insecticide mixers/pumps, 16 ultra-low volume (ULV) truck-mounted spray tanks, and a stock container were sampled and analyzed by gas chromatography. The result showed that an average of 55.53% and 70.32% permethrin in Aqua-Reslin were decomposed in the ULV spray truck tanks and in the mixers/pumps, respectively, during the 4-month mosquito off-season. The degradation may directly result in economic loss. Also, the mosquito control efficacy may be compromised if the concentrations are inappropriate. The permethrin analytical method, economic cost, and degradation-prevention methods are discussed in this article.

The mosquitoes and plants symposium presented by the American Mosquito Control Association was held as part of its 73rd Annual Meeting in Orlando, Florida, April 1–5, 2007. The principal objectives were to share the research information about mosquitoes and plants and to promote using plants and vegetation for mosquito management. This publication summaries 15 presentations that were given orally by participants from 4 countries and 12 organizations. Topics addressed in the symposium included bromeliad-inhabiting mosquitoes, Anopheles mosquitoes associated with vegetation, phytochemicals as population-sampling devices, artemisinin for malaria control, mosquitoes' response to plant extracts, botanical repellents, mosquito larvicides from plants and medical plant extracts, plant essential oil–impregnated sand granules of larvicides, adulticidal efficacy of plant essential oils, vegetation barriers and plant treatment, wetland vegetation management, and vegetation effects on insecticide droplet size.

Most mosquito species have 2 hosts: vertebrate animals and vascular plants. The kairomones of vertebrates have been employed extensively as attractants in traps that are used for surveillance, either to assess adult density of mosquito populations or to detect pathogen activity. They also have been employed in basic field studies of mosquito physiology, behavior, and ecology. The semiochemicals that mosquitoes use to find plant hosts for their sugar, by contrast, have not been utilized at all. Currently we are characterizing attractive blends of volatile compounds produced by plant species visited by Aedes vexans, Culex pipiens, and Anopheles gambiae. These blends may be effective in attracting a unique subset of a mosquito population when deployed in surveillance traps. The principal advantages of phytochemical attractants are that they lure a) both sexes, b) all ages, including those that are newly emerged, c) females in all gonotrophic states, and d) both nondiapausing and reproductively diapausing females. Potential challenges to their successful use are the abundance of competing volatiles, narrow plant-host specificity, and a weaker behavioral response to phytochemical cues.

The effect of attractive sugar bait stations, including sucrose, juice of nectarine, slow-release substances, preservatives, red food-dye marker, and the oral insecticide spinosad, on Anopheles sergentii and Aedes caspius populations was studied in a small oasis in a southern desert of Israel. Feeding on similar baits without an insecticide was monitored as a control in a similar neighboring oasis. The insecticide caused a drastic decrease in the number of mosquitoes. Compared to the control site, the An. sergentii population was reduced to less than a tenth and that of Ae. caspius declined to a third. The majority of the mosquitoes, 76.0% of An. sergentii females and 74.8% of Ae. caspius females, were marked by the food dye in the control site.

The repellent effect of 3 essential-oil-based candles was evaluated in a high biting pressure environment in Israel. In human landing assays, the repellency rate of 5% citronella candles against mosquitoes was 29.0%, of 5% linalool candles was 71.1%, and of 5% geraniol candles was 85.4%. The candles with geraniol were about twice as effective as those with linalool and were about 5 times as effective as citronella candles in protecting a person from being bitten indoors by mosquitoes. The repellency rate of 5% citronella candles towards sand flies was 24.7%, of 5% linalool candles was 55.2%, and of 5% geraniol candles was 79.7%. A geraniol candle was almost 5 times as effective as a citronella candle and about twice as effective as a linalool candle in protecting a person from being bitten indoors by sand flies.

The first goal of this study was to compare the degree of personal protection against biting insects provided by geraniol, linalool, and citronella candle (5%) vapors outdoors, where such products are commonly used. At a distance of 1.0 m, citronella candles reduced the number of female mosquitoes caught in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traps by 35.4% and sand flies by 15.4%, linalool candles reduced female mosquitoes by 64.9% and sand flies by 48.5%, while geraniol candles reduced female mosquitoes by 81.5% and sand flies by 69.8%. By increasing the distance to 2 m and 3 m, the repellency dropped significantly. The second goal was to compare the degree of personal protection provided by the best performing candle, geraniol, under conditions of high and low biting pressure. The introduction of geraniol candles to protect volunteers in a high biting pressure environment reduced the mosquito pressure by an average of 56% and the sand fly pressure by 62% over a distance of 1.0 m. In the low biting pressure environment, geraniol reduced the mosquito pressure by an average of 62%. No sand flies were present at this site.

The larvicidal activity of 4 plant essential oils—cinnamon oil, lemon eucalyptus oil, sandalwood oil, and turmeric oil—previously reported as insect repellents was evaluated in the laboratory against 4th instars of Aedes albopictus, Ae. aegypti, and Culex pipiens. Sandalwood oil appeared to be the most effective of the larvicides, killing larvae of all 3 mosquito species in relatively short times. The values of LT₅₀ and LT₉₀ at the application dosage (0.2 mg/ml) were 1.06 ± 0.11 and 3.24 ± 0.14 h for Ae. aegypti, 1.82 ± 0.06 and 3.33 ± 0.48 h for Ae. albopictus, and 1.55 ± 0.07 and 3.91 ± 0.44 h for Cx. pipiens, respectively. Chemical compositions of these essential oils were also studied, and the lavicidal activity of their major ingredient compounds was compared with that of each of the essential oils. The acute toxicity of the 4 essential oils to fathead minnows was also evaluated. The safe use of these natural plant essential oils in future applications of mosquito control was discussed.

The toxicities of malathion-, permethrin-, and fipronil-treated plant foliage against laboratory colonies of adult Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus were evaluated. The exposure times significantly affected the percentage knockdown of mosquitoes. Fipronil-impregnated plant leaves caused higher mortality than malathion- and permethrin-impregnated leaves at the same application rates. Aedes albopictus was more sensitive to the 3 kinds of insecticides than Ae. aegypti. The method for bioassay of mosquito adulticides using plant foliage has been described, and the advantage and disadvantage of leaf bioassay method has been discussed and compared with other existing methods.

The application of insecticides to perimeter vegetation for the purpose of controlling adult mosquitoes in backyards and other recreational areas has generated renewed interest among the general public. Several pyrethroids have been labeled for this use and provided, depending on chemical and formulation, up to ≈6 wk of acceptable adult mosquito reduction. A review of past work in this area is presented. In addition, results from a recent field study by the author to determine the residual effectiveness of bifenthrin-treated vegetation as a barrier against adult mosquitoes in northwestern Florida is also presented. Bifenthrin (TalstarOne™) suppressed mosquito populations in the treatment area below an annoyance action threshold of 25 mosquitoes per night in carbon dioxide-baited light traps for 5 out of the 8-wk study. Excised leaf bioassays conducted at the same time as trap collections revealed that bifenthrin-treated leaves exhibited >70% knockdown/mortality against laboratory-reared female Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus for 4 of those weeks.

Wind speed fluctuations measured via a 3-dimensional sonic anemometer recording at 10 Hz returned detailed information both above and within the canopy. The information returned facilitated detailed descriptions of atmospheric energy. In short, large energetic motions equal spray transfer into the target zone, the plant canopy. Data are presented on the physical and biological characterization of spray flux. When nontarget mortality was high the conditions were stable, and large volumes of pesticide descended via aircraft vortices and sedimentation. On the neutral night where there was turbulence in the atmosphere a large proportion of the spray was transported from the target, by winds at altitude. Therefore nontarget mortality and the overall volume entering the canopy were low. That chemical, however, which did enter the canopy was well mixed and transported horizontally as opposed to the more vertical sedimentation on the stable night creating more consistent control.