Full citations are provided for four posthumously published papers coauthored or inspired by the late Robert Traub, the greatest authority on fleas and flea-borne diseases who ever lived. Seven additional patronyms, five posthumous and two newly discovered, bring to 41 the total number of taxa named for this preeminent medical entomologist.

Knowledge of vector distribution is important for the design of effective local malaria control programs. Here we apply ecological niche modeling to analyze and predict the distributions of malaria vectors based on entomological collection points in the State of Roraima in the northern Brazilian Amazon Basin. Anopheline collections were conducted from 1999 to 2003 at 76 localities, all with active malaria transmission. A total of 13 anopheline species was identified from 17, 074 adult females collected: Anopheles darlingi, An. albitarsis s.l., An. nuneztovari, An. triannulatus s.l., An. braziliensis, An. peryassui, An. oswaldoi s.l., An. mattogrossensis, An. strodei, An. evansae, An. squamifemur, An. mediopunctatus s.l., An. intermedius. Anopheles darlingi, and An. albitarsis were the most frequently found species. An. squamifemur was found for the first time in Roraima. A distributional prediction model (genetic algorithm for rule-set prediction-GARP) and environmental variables were used to predicted potential distribution range for six anopheline species that occurred at ≥ 19 collection points. The method allows for the application of moderate sample sizes to produce distribution maps of vector species that could be used to maximize efficiency of surveys and optimize use of economic resources in epidemiology and control.

Based on their ecology, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks from eastern and southern Africa have been divided into three groups. We investigated how two geographic genetically differentiated stocks of R. appendiculatus from the southern and the eastern provinces of Zambia, representing two ecological groups, i.e., southern African and transition groups, respectively, genetically compare to stocks from east Africa (Rwanda) and southern Africa (Zimbabwe and South Africa). The ITS2 and two mitochondrial genes segments, 12s rDNA and COI, were used in the investigations. The ITS2 tree did not show support for differentiation into any groups, while the two mitochondrial genes trees (12s rDNA and COI) showed two genetically differentiated groups: an east African genetic group which included specimens from Rwanda and the plateau area of the eastern province of Zambia, and a southern African genetic group represented by specimens from South Africa, Zimbabwe and specimens collected on the fringes of the eastern province plateau in the Nyimba district of Zambia. This suggests that the two geographically differentiated stocks of the southern and eastern provinces of Zambia might be part of two wider geographic genetically differentiated R. appendiculatus groups that extend beyond Zambia. Stocks of “transition” ecology (eastern province) belong to the east African genetic group and the differences in ecology within this genetic grouping may be due to genetic polymorphism, phenotypic plasticity, and other local factors.

Larval habitats of the main malaria vectors in Belize are associated with three distinctly different aquatic environments: marshes with sparse macrophytes and cyanobacterial mats (Anopheles albimanus), tall dense macrophyte marshes (An. vestitipennis), and floating detritus assemblages within freshwater rivers (An. darlingi). We assessed species specific habitat suitability based upon nutrient characteristics using larval survival rates (SR) and wing lengths (WL) from floating habitat enclosures. Anopheles albimanus showed a high SR (81%) in all three habitats, while An. vestitipennis had a similarly high SR in its own habitat (82%) and An. darlingi's habitat (81%). Anopheles darlingi only showed high SR (85%) in its own habitat. Both An. vestitipennis and An. darlingi showed very low SR in the An. albimanus habitat. There were no significant WL differences among field-caught, laboratory-reared, and experimental populations of An. vestitipennis and An. albimanus, with the exception of An. vestitipennis experimental populations and An. vestitipennis field populations placed in the An. albimanus habitat. Habitat quality indicators, particulate organic carbon (POC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and particulate organic nitrogen (PON), were consistently higher in An. vestitipennis habitats than in the habitats of the other two species. Correspondingly, An. vestitipennis adults were larger when measured both as dry mass and from WL. There were no differences in dry mass, lipids, or protein content among the same species reared at different locations. We compared SR and WL among mosquitoes from shaded and unshaded containers to test whether the high mortality rates for An. vestitipennis and An. darlingi in the An. albimanus habitat were due to intense sun exposure. There were no significant differences among developmental times, survivorship, or adult size for shaded versus sun-exposed populations. This indicates that other factors such as larval toxins, predator avoidance, interspecific species competition, etc. may be responsible for the higher mortality rates in those species not adapted to this particular habitat.

The attraction of female tabanids to unbaited and single-baited canopy traps using 4-methylphenol, 3-isopropylphenol, and naphthalene was studied in three forest localities in eastern Croatia. Tabanids were collected in a significantly higher number in traps baited with these chemicals compared to unbaited control traps. The number of females of Tabanus bromius, Tabanus sudeticus, Tabanus tergestinus, Hybomitra ciureai, Haematopota pluvialis, and Tabanus maculicornis collected from 4-methylphenol baited canopy traps and traps baited with other attractants differed significantly. A total of 89.0% of tabanids collected belonged to these six species. The response of the other species to used chemicals was not analyzed because of small sample sizes. Moreover, the results with 3-isopropylphenol and naphthalene are very similar and not significant for some tabanids. Tabanus bromius was the most abundant species with 48.4% in the sample collected by canopy traps. Finally, the 4-methylphenol baited canopy traps collected 16 times more tabanids than unbaited traps, while 3-isopropylphenol and naphthalene baited traps collected 3.5 and 2 times as many tabanids, respectively, than unbaited traps. Also, 4-methylphenol appeared to be a very effective attractant for Lucilia caesar (Calliphoridae), Sarcophaga carnaria (Sarcophagidae), and Musca domestica (Muscidae).

Knowledge of factors that influence oviposition behavior of malaria mosquitoes is critical to vector control measures aimed at larval habitat modifications and source reduction. Anopheles minimus s.l., an important malaria vector in Southeast Asia, generally breeds in clear, unpolluted water along shaded grassy edges of slow-moving streams. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of vegetation and plant structure on An. minimus s.l. ovipositing females. Twenty gravid female mosquitoes per replication were given a choice to lay eggs in bowls surrounded by different combinations of bare soil, grasses, small-leaved plants, and large-leaved plants. An. minimus s.l. females generally preferred to lay eggs in bowls with vegetation. A significantly higher number of eggs were found in bowls with small-leaved plants compared to bowls with grasses (P<0.05). The results suggest that gravid females preferred oviposition habitats in the following order: small-leaved plants > large-leaved plants > grasses > soil. Further studies are needed to determine the possible roles of plant structure and factors such as semiochemicals in the different species of the An. minimus species complex. Knowledge of female oviposition behavior is essential for the development of locally adapted vector control approaches.

We detected antibodies reactive with Rickettsia akari, the etiologic agent of rickettsialpox in humans and in 83 of 359 (23%) rodents belonging to several species, collected in Orange County, CA. Reciprocal antibody titers >1:16 to R. akari were detected in native mice and rats (Peromyscus maniculatus, P. eremicus, and Neotoma fuscipes) and in Old World mice and rats (Mus musculus, Rattus rattus, and R. norvegicus), representing the first time that antibodies reactive with this agent have been detected in four of these species and the first report of these antibodies in rodents and humans west of the Mississippi River. We then tested serum samples from individuals who used a free clinic in downtown Los Angeles and found that 25 of 299 (8%) of these individuals had antibody titers >1:64 to R. akari. Serologic evidence suggested that R. akari or a closely related rickettsia is prevalent among several rodent species at these localities and that infection spills over into certain segments of the human population. Isolation or molecular confirmation of the agent is needed to conclusively state that R. akari is the etiologic agent infecting these rodents.

We attempted to isolate West Nile virus from mosquitoes collected in the field for the first time in Turkey. A total of 6, 457 mosquito specimens from Culex pipiens Linnaeus, Ochlerotatus caspius (Pallas) and Aedes spp. species were included in this study. Culex pipiens samples made up 56% of the total species, O. caspius 24% and Aedes spp 20%. There were no positive results after studying mosquito samples using Real-time PCR, VecTest, and Vero cell culture. In serological tests of 181 human serum samples, 29 (16%) were found to be West Nile positive. On the basis of these results, we intend to collect more mosquito samples especially from those areas from which positive serum samples were obtained.

Discarded tires are an important habitat for larvae of multiple species of disease-transmitting mosquitoes. Although tire locations likely influence composition and abundance of vectors, there are few data linking vector populations to the characteristics of the aquatic tire environment. We sampled water-filled tires at three times at a forested and an unforested site to evaluate how differences in detritus inputs or nutrients in these two macrohabitats may be associated with composition of mosquito-dominated invertebrate communities. The forested site had significantly greater inputs of leaves, twigs, seeds, and fine detritus at the first sampling, but subsequent sampling indicated no differences in inputs of any detritus type. Total phosphorous levels were significantly greater in the forested site, but there was no difference in total nitrogen or total ion concentrations during any sampling. Chlorophyll α levels were not different between sites, even though light levels were greater and canopy cover was less at the unforested site. Culex restuans dominated at the unforested site, and Ochlerotatus triseriatus, Anopheles barberi, and Orthopodomyia signifera were found primarily in the forest. Tires at the forested site had significantly more species but not more individuals than at the unforested site. Leaf amount was a good predictor of densities of Oc. triseriatus and overall abundance of mosquitoes in the forest, whereas the amount of seeds was a good predictor of overall invertebrate richness and of Oc. triseriatus numbers in the unforested site. Differences in mosquito assemblage composition between forested and unforested locations may be explained by greater inputs of plantbased detritus and some nutrients, but other factors, such as macrohabitat or host preferences of adult mosquitoes, also may be important.

The aim of this study was to predict the distribution and movement of populations of the tsetse fly, Glossina palpalis palpalis (Diptera: Glossinidae), in the wet and dry seasons and to analyze the impact of the use of mono-pyramidal traps on fly populations in the Kogo focus in 2004 and 2005. Three Glossina species are present in Kogo: Glossina palpalis palpalis, major HAT vector in West-Central Africa, Glossina caliginea, and Glossina tabaniformis. The apparent density (AD) G. p. palpalis clearly fell from 1.23 tsetse/trap/day in July 2004 to 0.27 in December 2005. A significant reduction in the mean AD for this species was noted between seasons and years. The diversity of Glossina species was relatively low at all the sampling points; G. p. palpalis clearly predominated over the other species and significantly dropped as a consequence of control activities. The predictive models generated for the seasonal AD showed notable differences not only in the density but in the distribution of the G. p. palpalis population between the rainy and dry season. The mono-pyramidal traps have proven to be effective instrument for reducing the density of the tsetse fly populations, although given that the Kogo trypanosomiasis focus extends from the southern Equatorial Guinea to northern Gabon, interventions need to be planned on a larger scale, involving both countries, to guarantee the long-term success of control.

The wing-shape morphology of local populations of the medically important phlebotomine sand flies, Phlebotomus sergenti, P. papatasi, P. tobbi, and P. similis, were examined in both sexes by using geometric morphometrics. There are threemajor mountain ranges that may serve as geographical barriers for species distribution in the study area and four main gaps were recognized among these barriers. We found no statistically important differences in wing morphologWe morphology in all examined species in both sexes for all local populations. These results show that the barriers are not sufficient to stop gene flow among local populations of sand flies. The graphical depiction of PCA, CVA, and F-test confirmed our morphometric study suggesting that the difference in wing morphology between P. similis and P. sergenti indicates that these are clearly different species. These two show sympatric distribution in the Konya Plain of Anatolia.

The mosquito fauna of Iran includes seven genera, 64 species, and three subspecies. The records of 12 other species should be verified. There are 24 species in the most recent checklist of Iranian Anopheles. Two species, An. peditaeniatus and An. fluviatilis species V, have been reported since. An. atroparvus, An. labranchiae, and An. martinius of the Maculipennis Group, and An. cinereus, An. nigerrimus, and An. rhodesiensis rupicola were recorded previously but are not included in the checklist. The checklist of Iranian Culicinae includes ten species of the tribe Aedini, but there are some records of four other species: Aedes aegypti, Ochlerotatus berlandi, Oc. chelli, and Oc. dorsalis. The genus Culex includes 19 species, excluding Cx. impudicus, which has not been collected recently, and some doubtful records of Cx. univittatus, Cx. vishnui, and Cx. vagans. The genus Culiseta includes five species and the genera Coquillettidia and Uranotaenia each include one species in Iran. No information is available for the An. subpictus, Oc. caspius, Oc. detritus, and Oc. pulcritaris species complexes in Iran. The An. claviger and Cx. pipiens complexes and the An. hyrcanus group require review.

Ixodes scapularis can be infected with Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Bartonella spp., Babesia microti, and Rickettsia spp., including spotted-fever group Rickettsia. As all of these microorganisms have been reported in Maryland, the potential for these ticks to have concurrent infections exists in this region. To assess the frequency of these complex infections, 348 I. scapularis nymphs collected in 2003 were screened for these microorganisms by PCR with positives being confirmed by DNA sequencing. Borrelia burgdorferi was detected in 14.7% of nymphs. Anaplasma phagocytophilum (0.3%), Rickettsia spp. (19.5%), and an uncategorized agent (0.9%) was also detected. Dual infections were detected with B. burgdorferi and Rickettsia spp. as well as a triple infection with B. burgdorferi, Rickettsia spp., and an uncategorized agent. Infections with B. burgdorferi and Rickettsia spp. were statistically independent of one another. However, infection with B. burgdorferi and any one of these other microorganisms appears to occur more frequently than by chance alone, probably as a result of shared enzootic cycles. This study confirms that multiple microorganisms co-circulate with B. burgdorferi in I. scapularis in Maryland and demonstrates that Rickettsia spp. and B. burgdorferi circulate independently and at nearly equal frequencies, while A. phagocytophilum and other unrecognized organisms are less common.

Container-inhabiting mosquito species are subject to both intraspecific and interspecific competition during larval development in resource-limited habitats. The arrival of an invasive species, Aedes albopictus, in the U.S. has altered competitive interactions among container-inhabiting mosquito species and, in some cases, has led to displacement of these species. Resource enrichment of container habitats has been shown to alleviate competitive interactions and to promote species co-existence; however, the importance of the timing of enrichment has yet to be explored. Larval competition between Ae. albopictus and a native species, Ochlerotatus triseriatus, was explored when resources were added either gradually or in a single pulse. Replacement series experiments revealed that Ae. albopictus was able to outcompete and displace Oc. triseriatus via resource monopolization when all resources were made available simultaneously; however, when the same resource amount was added over time, survival was high for both species, leading to co-existence. Timing of resource input also had an effect in monospecific treatments, indicating that intraspecific competition impacts survival as well. Duration of larval development was influenced by both species presence and by timing of resource input for Oc. triseriatus. These results indicate competitive outcome is condition-specific and that timing of resource input can determine whether a dominant invasive competitor displaces a native species, or if the two species are able to co-exist. Both intraspecific and interspecific competition occur at different temporal scales due to species-specific differences in larval developmental time. Timing of resource availability in container habitats can impact mosquito survival via competitive interactions, which can ultimately influence vector population size and behavior, possibly influencing vector-borne disease transmission.

We investigated the dynamics of Glossina spp. and their role in the transmission of trypanosomiasis in the sleeping sickness endemic Serengeti ecosystem, northwestern Tanzania. The study investigated Glossina species composition, trap density, trypanosome infection rates, and the diversity of trypanosomes infecting the species. Tsetse were trapped using monopyramidal traps in the mornings between 06:00 to 11:00 and transported to the veterinary laboratory in Serengeti National Park where they were sorted into species and sex, and dissected microscopically to determine trypanosome infection rates. Age estimation of dissected flies was also conducted concurrently. Tsetse samples positive for trypanosomes were subjected to PCR to determine the identity of the detected trypanosomes. Out of 2, 519 tsetse trapped, 1, 522 (60.42%) were G. swynnertoni, 993 (39.42%) were G. pallidipes, three (0.12%) were G. m. morsitans, and one (0.04%) was G. brevipalpis. The trap density for G. swynnertoni was between 1.40 and 14.17 while that of G. pallidipes was between 0.23 and 9.70. Out of 677 dissected G. swynnertoni, 63 flies (9.3%) were infected, of which 62 (98.4%) were females. A total of 199 G. pallidipes was also dissected but none was infected. There was no significant difference between the apparent densities of G. swynnertoni compared to that of G. pallidipes (t = 1.42, p = 0.18). Molecular characterization of the 63 infected G. swynnertoni midguts showed that 19 (30.2%) were trypanosomes associated with suid animals while nine (14.3%) were trypanosomes associated with bovid animals and five samples (7.9%) had T. brucei s.l genomic DNA. Thirty (47.6%) tsetse samples could not be identified. Subsequent PCR to differentiate between T. b. brucei and T. b. rhodesiense showed that all five samples that contained the T. brucei s.l genomic DNA were positive for the SRA molecular marker indicating that they were T. b. rhodesiense. These results indicate that G. swynnertoni plays a major role in the transmission of trypaniosomiasis in the area and that deliberate and sustainable control measures should be initiated and scaled up.

The two Old World genera, Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia, were both recorded in southern Anatolia in Turkey. Phlebotomus species predominated and comprised about 93% of the entire collection (3, 172 specimens). Out of the sixteen species identified, two belonged to the genus Sergentomyia: S. dentata and S. theodori. The remaining fourteen species in the genus Phlebotomus were grouped under four subgenera including some species that are elsewhere known to act as vectors of human cutaneous leishmaniasis. Most of the Phlebotomus were P. tobbi (32.5%), but P. papatasi, P. transcaucasicus, P. halepensis, P. galilaeus, P. sergenti, P. syriacus, P. neglectus, P. simici, P. alexandri, P. similis, P. jacusieli, P. perfiliewi, and P. brevis were also identified. There were two associations of sand fly fauna with altitudinal gradient; the first one at relatively higher altitudes and the second one at lower altitudes. The transition between these two assemblages was within the range of 800–1, 000 m. It is likely that Adana and Hatay provinces are transitional areas between western and eastern Anatolia. Mountains do not appear to be important geographical barriers for sand fly distribution. We also found that the proven vector P. sergenti is a widely distributed species throughout southern Anatolia and this species, together with its closely related species P. similis, shows sympatry in Konya Province.

The American swallow bug (Oeciacus vicarius) is an important ectoparasite of cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and is known to harbor several types of arbovirus. A recent study in northeast Texas suggested that O. vicarius might occur in barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) at rates much higher than previously thought. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which barn swallows in northeast Texas are parasitized by O. vicarius and how well this parasite is adapting to this novel host. A sample of 498 nests at 54 colonies was inspected for O. vicarius. Forty colonies (74.1%) were infected, while 310 nests (62.2%) were infected. Large colonies were more likely to be infected than small colonies. Colonies that also contained cliff swallows were more likely to be infected than colonies without cliff swallows. Infection levels in barn swallow nests were comparable to those reported for cliff swallows, though age and sex class ratios differed. Demographic changes among swallow species, including range expansions, increased colony sizes, and more frequent interspecific nesting associations have likely facilitated the movement of O. vicarius from the cliff swallow into a novel host, the barn swallow.

West Nile virus surveillance was conducted at five sites in New Castle County, DE, and one site in Salem County, NJ, from June through September, 2004, using dry ice-baited Centers for Disease Control miniature light traps, infusion-baited gravid traps, and resting boxes. All trap types were simultaneously placed at each site every two weeks and run overnight. Collected mosquitoes were identified to species, pooled, and analyzed for virus using a real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction test. In total, 47, 972 mosquitoes in 29 species or species groups were analyzed. Light traps collected 60, 201 mosquitoes in 28 species or species groups. Gravid traps collected 3, 195 mosquitoes in 19 species or species groups. Resting boxes collected 99 mosquitoes in nine species or species groups. In total, 1, 500 mosquito pools were tested for WNV resulting in ten positive pools. All positive pools consisted of Culex pipiens, Culex restuans, or Culex salinarius. Seven positive pools were from gravid traps and three were from light traps despite testing almost 14 times as many pools from light traps. The overall infection rate from gravid traps was nearly 33 times greater than the infection rate from light traps, 2.29 and 0.07 infected mosquitoes per 1, 000, respectively. The results demonstrate the advantage of using gravid traps for West Nile virus surveillance over light traps or resting boxes.

Species of eye flies and eye gnats (Diptera: Chloropidae) are severe and persistent pests of man, domestic and wild animals, and potential vectors of pathogens. The species prevailing in the Oriental region belong to the genus Siphunculina, while those in the Neotropic and Nearctic regions belong to Liohippelates and Hippelates. These are small insects of 1-2 mm that feed on wounds, lacerations, scratches, and mucous membranes of man and higher animals. One species, Siphunculina funicola, commonly known as the Oriental eye fly, is considered the most anthropophilic in the genus, with potential involvement in the spread and mechanical transmission of infectious agents to humans and animals. Very little is known about the biology, prevalence, host-seeking, and aggregation behavior of this species in South and Southeast Asia. We initiated studies on biological aspects of this potential vector and human pest in central Thailand. The most significant findings of our study were the aggregation behaviors of S. funicola, that both sexes attack hosts, and that males outnumbered females attacking humans, dogs, and other domestic animals. They feed on wounds, scabs, lacerations, eyes, and mucous membranes. They hover around and feed on hosts during the daylight hours when host-seeking activities are more pronounced at temperatures above 25–27° C under calm conditions. We noted that large masses of males and females aggregated on a variety of hanging objects such as strings, trailings, electrical lines, decorations, ropes, twines, abandoned cob webs, clothes hangers, and other hanging substrates in open shade of structures and dwellings. This behavior of eye flies brings them closer to human and animal hosts. In these aggregations, both males and females were present, with mating pairs frequently noted. In the aggregations, about 37% of the females had fully developed eggs in the rainy season, but only <1–3.6% were gravid in the hot and dry season. The average number of eggs per female was generally 42 to 44.

Centers For Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps were modified for use with light-emitting diodes (LED) and compared against a control trap (incandescent light) to determine the effectiveness of blue, green, and red lights against standard incandescent light routinely used for sand fly surveillance. Light traps were baited with dry ice and rotated through a 4 × 4 Latin square design during May, June, and July, 2006. Trapping over 12 trap nights yielded a total of 2, 298 sand flies in the village of Bahrif, 6 km north of Aswan on the east bank of the Nile River in southern Egypt. Phlebotomus papatasi comprised 94.4% of trap collections with five other species collected in small numbers. Over half (55.13%) of all sand flies were collected from red light traps and significantly more sand flies (P < 0.05) were collected from red light traps than from blue, green, or incandescent light traps. Red light traps collected more than twice as many sand flies as control (incandescent) traps and > 4 × more than blue and green light traps. Results indicate that LED red light is a more effective substitute for standard incandescent light when surveying in areas where P. papatasi is the predominant sand fly species. Each LED uses approximately 15% of the energy that a standard CDC lamp consumes, extending battery life and effective operating time of traps. Our prototype LED-modified traps performed well in this hot, arid environment with no trap failures.

With fewer than 50 birds remaining in the wild, Attwater's Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) is critically endangered. Individuals of this species on the Attwater Prairie Chicken National Wildlife Refuge, Colorado Co., TX, have been attacked in successive winters, 2005–2006, by the blood-feeding black fly Cnephia ornithophilia. Attwater's Prairie-Chicken is a previously unreported host for Cnephia ornithophilia. Molecular screening indicated that about 15% of 13 blood-fed flies sampled from captured Attwater's Prairie-Chickens carried a parasite of the genus Leucocytozoon that can cause a debilitating avian malaria-like disease. If blood feeding or transmission of the disease agent becomes a threat to the birds, particularly in years of lean food supply or harsh weather, management of Cnephia ornithophilia should be considered.

The efficiency and practicality of two trapping methods for adult Phlebotomine sand flies in two areas of the Emilia-Romagna region (Italy) were evaluated. Suction traps (CO₂) and sticky traps (ST) were used to collect sand flies every two weeks, from June to September, 1999, from 16:00 to 07:00. Two CO₂ traps were activated at the same time for each area (one with light and one without light), whereas 38 (four with light and 34 without lights) and 48 (four with light and 44 without) sticky traps were activated in Borghi and Longiano, respectively. An Index of Apparent Abundance (IAA) was calculated for each trap type and area. A total of 2,253 sand flies was trapped over the four-month period, with 1,765 collected from Borghi and 488 from Longiano. Phlebotomus perfiliewi was the most abundant species collected, comprising 99.6% and 84.6% of the total flies trapped in Borghi and Longiano, respectively. Other species were also collected within the two areas (Phlebotomus perniciosus and Phlebotomus mascittii) but were not considered for further analyses due to low catches. Significantly more specimens were caught using CO₂ than sticky traps and the addition of a light source also improved the catches, however, a significantly greater number of female specimens were collected by a CO₂ trap without a light source. Phlebotomus perfiliewi thus appears to show a photophobic reaction in the case of females when trapped using CO₂/light attractants.

The increasing risk of mosquito-borne diseases in African urban environments has been partly attributed to failed planning and resource underdevelopment. Though engineered systems may reduce mosquito proliferation, there are few studies describing this relationship. This study investigates how engineered systems such as roads and piped water systems affect the odds of anopheline immatures (i.e., larvae and pupae) occurring in water bodies located in Malindi, Kenya. Anopheles gambiae s.s. (Giles), An. arabiensis (Patton), and An. merus (Dointz) were identified in urban Malindi, with Anopheles gambiae s.s. being the predominant species identified. The Breslow-Day test was used to explore interactions among independent variables. Logistic regression was used to test whether water bodies positive for anopheline immatures are associated with engineered systems, while controlling for potential confounding and interaction effects associated with urban water body characteristics. Water bodies more than 100 m from water pipes were 13 times more likely to have anopheline immatures present, compared to water bodies that were less than 100 m from water pipes (OR = 13.54, 95% CI: 3.15 – 58.23). Roads were not significantly associated with water bodies positive for anopheline immatures. Statistical interaction was detected between water body substrate type and distance to water pipes. This study provides insight into how water pipes influence the distribution of water bodies positive with immature anophelines in urban environments.

Ochlerotatus triseriatus, the eastern treehole mosquito, reaches its northernmost range limit in the extreme southeast of Canada. As a known vector of West Nile and La Crosse encephalitis viruses and a potential vector of eastern equine encephalitis, its population biology is of interest. In southern Ontario, high larval densities occur in urban woodlots within sugar maple and American beech treehole communities comprising rotifers, nematode worms, mites, other dipterans, and scirtid beetles. Treehole water was characterized by low dissolved oxygen levels and seasonally variable pH and temperature, with the latter being most influential on local populations. Densities were significantly higher (up to 503 larvae 100 ml⁻¹) in tree holes close to the forest floor (<1 m) and in experimental tree holes seeded with autumn-shed maple leaves as opposed to leaves of black oak and beech. In this locality, weekly sampling showed Oc. triseriatus to be multivoltine, with mass egg hatching beginning under coldwater (<10° C) conditions in March/April, and thereafter producing three successful generations with a possible, less successful fourth in late summer. Some 1^st instar larvae were present in water as cold as 0.7° C. Compared with larval psychodids living in the same tree hole, population losses of Oc. triseriatus due to washout during major rainfall events were negligible despite high flowthrough of water derived from stemflow.

In the state of Rio Grande do Norte in northeast Brazil, cases of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) occur mainly in the periurban areas of the city of Natal. Lutzomyia longipalpis Lutz & Neiva 1912 (Diptera: Psychodidae), a vector of Leishmania chagasi (Protozoa: Trypanosomatidae) to humans, is found throughout the state. Flora and fauna influence the distribution of sand fly species, whose horizontal or vertical stratification can be used as a parameter for identifying potential vectors, considering the presence of vertebrate hosts in the area. The purpose of this study was to obtain information about the vertical stratification of phlebotomine sand flies in an endemic area of leishmaniasis in Rio Grande do Norte, and associate it with the presence of other animals in the peridomiciliary environment as well as to analyze, under laboratory conditions, aspects of L. longipalpis reproduction in wild females. The sand flies were captured with light traps hung at different heights in species of Atlantic Forest trees and in a peridomiciliary environment in animal shelters. The traps were placed between 17:30 and 6:00 of the following day, in a peridomiciliary and extradomiciliary area of a forest fragment in both dry and rainy months. In the extradomiciliary environment, the traps were installed at 1, 3 and 5 m above the ground. The biological cycle of L. longipalpis was followed from the eggs of 200 wild females. Specimens of L. lenti, L. walkeri, and L. migonei were captured. The comparison and statistical analysis showed that L. longipalpis is more abundant at a height of 3 m and L. evandroi at 1 m. In the animal shelters (chickens, horses, and armadillos), we captured mainly specimens of L. longipalpis and L. evandroi. The duration of the biological cycle of L. longipalpis was approximately 38 days at a temperature of 28° C.

In the far-western United States, the bacteria that cause Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi, Bb) and human granulocytic anaplasmosis (Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ap) are transmitted by the western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus). In a dense woodland, human behaviors involving contact with wood were recently found to pose greater risk for encountering I. pacificus nymphs than behaviors entailing exclusive exposure to leaf litter. A four-year follow-up study was undertaken in the same woodland and, as a comparison area in one year only, in a nearby woodland-grass habitat to explore the biotic and abiotic factors that might elevate human exposure to host-seeking nymphs. Nymphs were active in the dense woodland throughout the daytime, but no consistent pattern of activity was observed with respect to time of day, temperature, or relative humidity. Significantly more nymphs were collected from the southern aspects of dense-woodland trunks than from other aspects, and more nymphs quested at a height of ≤1m vs 1–2 m aboveground. The prevalence of bacterial infection in ticks from the dense woodland was highly variable among years, with maxima of 22.6% and 42.9% for Bb, and 15.6% and 1.8% for Ap, in nymphs from logs and trunks, respectively. The mean densities of nymphs, and of Bb- or Ap-infected nymphs, were typically higher on logs and trunks than in adjoining leaf litter or grass in both habitats. The acarologic risk of encountering an infected nymph on dense-woodland logs or trunks was 2.8 to 11 times higher for Bb than for Ap in two of three years, and it was usually higher in dense woodland than in woodland-grass for both agents. Co-infections were rare (0.27%, n=369 nymphs from both habitats). Individuals having prolonged contact with logs or trunks in spring would be well advised to employ personal protective measures to minimize exposure to I. pacificus nymphs and their attendant bacterial zoonotic agents.

Seasonal and daily activity patterns of human-biting mosquitoes were studied in the lower delta of the Paraná River from March 2003 to February 2004. Monthly captures at four daytime intervals using human volunteers collected 1,289 mosquitoes belonging to 14 species and six genera, with the most frequently captured being Ochlerotatus crinifer (49%), Psorophora ferox (36%), Ochlerotatus serratus (5%), and Isostomyia paranensis (3%). Oc. crinifer was collected during the four seasons and showed higher values in Summer and Autumn. Ps. ferox and Oc. serratus were not present in Winter and the highest values were recorded in Summer. Monthly captures of Ps. ferox and Oc. serratus were positively associated with temperature. With regard to daily activity patterns, Oc. crinifer, Oc. serratus, and Ps. ferox were captured during the four collection intervals with nocturnal captures concentrated during the warm months. The daily activity patterns of these species changed throughout the seasons.