Most cases of rabies reported annually in the United States occur among three groups of carnivores—raccoons (Procyon lotor), skunks (Mephitis, Spilogale, and Putorius), foxes (Vulpes, Urocyon, and Alopex)—and among bats (numerous species). However, between 1960 and 2000, a total of 2,851 cases of rabies in 17 other carnivore taxa were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia (USA), from 49 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Three species of these other carnivores (mongooses [Herpestes javanicus], coyotes [Canis latrans], and bobcats [Lynx rufus]) accounted for 92% (2,624/2,851) of the cases reported among other canivorous mammals (OCMs). Most OCMs demonstrated temporal or spatial variation in numbers of reported cases. Tests of specimens from OCMs infected in the United States identified variants of the rabies virus that corresponded with variants associated with the major terrestrial reservoirs within their respective regions of origin. Variants of the rabies virus in samples from mongooses in Puerto Rico could not be distinguished from those in samples from dogs in Puerto Rico by virus typing methods.

Sixteen rabies isolates recently collected from mainland Turkey and two isolates held within a British archive were used to form a representative cohort from a range of vectors, and were analyzed to identify potential causes for an increase of rabies within the fox (Vulpes vulpes) population in Turkey. Each isolate was characterized by sequence analysis of the nucleoprotein gene and compared phylogenetically to the cohort, to isolates from neighboring countries and to isolates from continental Europe and Russia. From this analysis the isolates could be divided into three groups associated with geographic location. This included a western group, an eastern group, and one isolate that did not group with any other Turkish isolate. This observation was also found using the heteroduplex mobility assay as an alternative method for typing rabies virus isolates. Further comparison with isolates from neighboring countries suggests that this isolate was related to viruses present in Georgia and could represent a recent import to Turkey from that country. Within the two larger groups, sequence data were obtained from both infected dogs and foxes suggesting that there has been transmission of virus between these two species. The direction of transmission could not be identified by the phylogenetic analysis, although absence of rabies within the fox population in previous years suggests that this could represent a recent spillover from the domestic dog to the fox.

Sin Nombre hantavirus (SNV) is the primary etiologic agent of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) in the United States and Canada. Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome is a zoonotic disease. The most common reservoir is the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), although numerous other species of wild rodent can carry the viruses that cause HCPS throughout the Americas. Infected rodents show no signs of clinical disease but they develop persistent infection. Sin Nombre virus can be contracted by exposure to feces, urine, or saliva of its rodent reservoirs. Detection of infection in rodents is most often based upon detection of specific antibodies; many laboratories use enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), which require a specialized electrical ELISA reader. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay readers are not readily amenable to field usage. We describe a portable test, the strip immunoblot assay (SIA), which we have utilized in field diagnosis. The test can be conducted in approximately 6 hr during the day or can be conducted overnight. The test can be used to detect rodents positive for SNV antibody while they are in traps. We show that results with the SIA have excellent concordance with western blot and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction tests.

A predictive model of spread and control of rabies in red fox (Vulpes vulpes) populations was used to evaluate efficacy of culling, oral vaccination, and oral vaccination and fertility control (V FC) as rabies control strategies. In addition, effects of season, fox population density, and a delay in starting control were modeled. At fox densities of 0.5 fox families/km² or greater, a single oral vaccination campaign with bait uptake rates of less than 50% resulted in ineffective rabies control. An uptake rate of at least 80% was required to give a better than 80% chance of eliminating rabies. Vaccination was least effective at controlling rabies if applied 1 or 2 mo before the foxes gave birth. Seasonal timing of poison or V FC had little effect on efficacy, which was always more successful than the oral vaccination alone. The longer the delay between the simulated start of the rabies infection and the application of a single vaccination campaign, the less successful was the control, particularly at the higher fox densities tested. At a fox density of 0.25 families/km², all the strategies were equally successful at eliminating rabies. At higher fox densities V FC was slightly less successful than culling, whereas vaccination-only was considerably less successful. The sole use of vaccination is not considered a viable control method for areas with high fox densities. The model suggests that an area of culling centered on the disease focus, plus an outer ring of vaccine or V FC, could be the best strategy to control a point-source wildlife rabies outbreak.

Gene flow and potential for Sin Nombre virus (SNV) trafficking of the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) was studied in Delta and Mesa counties of western Colorado (USA). The study areas included Grand Mesa and surrounding grazing and agricultural areas. This area has several natural potential barriers to rodent gene flow, including rivers, cliffs, and mountains. Ten study sites were utilized in a spatially nested design ranging from 0.65–81 km apart; four of these sites were at or near human hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) case-patient residences. One HPS case occurred on the north side of Grand Mesa in 1993; the other three (two confirmed, one presumptive) occurred on the south side of Grand Mesa between 1999–2000. Blood and tissue samples were collected from each of 221 deer mice captured from 1999–2000. Blood samples were tested for IgG antibody to SNV. At least one deer mouse had antibody to SNV at nine of 10 sites. Genomic DNA was isolated from tissue samples and alleles at six microsatellite loci were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Polymorphisms were resolved on denaturing polyacrylamide gels and visualized by silver staining. Traditional population genetic analyses of this study indicated moderate population subdivision among the populations surveyed, slight evidence of isolation by distance, and that the Gunnison River system may hinder gene flow in this area. Application of assignment tests indicated that approximately 73–85% of mice were assigned to their population of capture. Many of the misclassifications occurred among sites less than 1 km apart; however, some long-distance misclassifications were noted. Additionally, some misclassifications were noted among study sites on different sides of the Gunnison River system, indicating that the riparian corridor of this system may facilitate some gene flow. Overall, these data indicate that SNV trafficking is more likely at the local level, but some long-distance trafficking may be possible, especially where select habitat variables favor long-distance movements.

Puumala virus, genus Hantavirus, is the etiologic agent of nephropathia epidemica, a mild form of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. The bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) is the natural reservoir species of this hantavirus. We initiated sampling of bank voles at sites of recently identified human nephropathia epidemica cases and paired control sites in the fall of 1995 in coastal areas of northern Sweden. Sites were trapped annually in spring and fall until 1999. Prevalence of antibody to Puumala virus was similar among local bank vole populations in the two types of sites over time. During peak years, however, the absolute number of bank voles was higher in case sites than control sites. Consequently, the likelihood of Puumala virus exposure was increased at case sites during population highs. This would imply that the risk of Puumala virus exposure to conspecifics and humans is habitat and site dependent with a temporal component.

Diagnostic findings are presented on 522 common loons (Gavia immer) found dead or moribund in New England (Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont, USA) between 1987 and 2000. Common loon numbers and range in New England have decreased from historic levels over the last century due to a number of proposed factors. Goals of this study were to identify and categorize causes of mortality and quantify natural versus anthropogenic causes. The majority of identifiable mortality in chicks was from intraspecific aggression (25%) and other causes of trauma (32%). Death in immature loons was primarily from fungal respiratory disease (20%) and trauma (18%). Causes of adult loon mortality differed significantly in breeding and wintering habitats. Wintering adults primarily died of trauma (17%) and infection (11%) and had significantly poorer body condition than breeding loons. In breeding adults, confirmed and suspected lead toxicosis from ingested fishing weights accounted for almost half of all mortality. Direct anthropogenic factors accounted for 52% of loon mortality in this study. Because of high carcass recovery rates, we believe these data are a good representation of loon mortality in New England. Results highlight the importance of human influences on conservation and management of the common loon in New England.

Brucellosis caused by infection with Brucella abortus is present in some elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) of the Greater Yellowstone Area (parts of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, USA). Since 1985, the Wyoming Game and Fish Department has vaccinated elk on elk feedgrounds in northwestern Wyoming during the winter months using B. abortus strain 19 (strain 19). Analysis of this vaccination program is hampered by the inability of standard serologic tests to differentiate between strain 19 vaccinated elk and those exposed to field strain B. abortus. In 1993, a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) was licensed to serologically differentiate between strain 19 vaccinated cattle and cattle exposed to field strain B. abortus. Seven groups of elk sera representing various B. abortus exposure histories were used to validate the cELISA test for elk. The cELISA test differentiated strain 19 vaccinated elk from elk that were challenged with B. abortus strain 2308, a pathogenic laboratory strain. The specificity of the cELISA was 96.8% for elk vaccinated with strain 19 only and sampled between 6 mo and 2 yr post vaccination, or with no B. abortus exposure. The sensitivity of the cELISA was 100%. The cELISA test will be useful in evaluating sera collected from elk in vaccinated, brucellosis endemic herds in the Greater Yellowstone Area.

Forty-five adult tule elk (Cervus elaphus nannodes) in good physical condition were translocated from a population located at Point Reyes National Seashore, Marin County (California, USA), to a holding pen 6 mo prior to release in an unfenced region of the park. Because infection with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Mptb) had been reported in the source population, the translocated elk underwent extensive ante-mortem testing using three Johne's disease assays: enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); agar gel immunodiffusion assay (AGID), and fecal culture. Isolation of Mptb was made from fecal samples in six of 45 elk (13%). All AGID results were negative while ELISA results for 18 elk (40%) were considered elevated. Elevated ELISA results or Mptb isolation from fecal samples were obtained for 22 of 45 elk (49%); these elk were euthanized and necropsied. Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis was isolated from tissue in 10 of 22 euthanized elk (45%); of these 10 cases of con-firmed infection, eight had elevated ELISA results (80%) and four were fecal culture positive (40%). One of 10 cases had histopathologic lesions consistent with Mptb infection. Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis was also isolated from tissue from one of eight fetuses sampled. The number of tule elk found to be infected was unexpected, both because of the continued overall health of the source herd and the normal clinical status of all study animals.

Between September 1997 and March 1998, a severe skin, eye, and mouth disease was observed in a population of dusky pigmy rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliarius barbouri), at the Lake Woodruff National Wildlife Refuge in Volusia County, Florida (USA). Three affected pigmy rattlesnakes were submitted for necropsy. All snakes had severe necrotizing and predominantly granulomatous dermatitis, stomatitis, and ophthalmitis, with involvement of the subadjacent musculature and other soft tissues. Numerous fungal hyphae were seen throughout tissue sections stained with periodic acid Schiff and Gomori's methenamine silver. Samples of lesions were cultured for bacteria and fungi. Based on hyphae and spore characteristics, four species of fungi were identified from culture: Sporothrix schenckii, Pestalotia pezizoides, Geotrichum candidum (Galactomyces geotrichum), and Paecilomyces sp. While no additional severely affected pigmy rattlesnakes were seen at the study site, a garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) and a ribbon snake (Thamnophis sauritis) with similar lesions were found. In 1998 and 1999, 42 pigmy rattlesnakes with multifocal minimal to moderate subcutaneous masses were seen at the study site. Masses from six of these snakes were biopsied in the field. Hyphae morphologically similar to those seen in the severe cases were observed with fungal stains. Analysis of a database representing 10,727 captures in previous years was performed after the 1998 outbreak was recognized. From this analysis we determined that 59 snakes with clinical signs similar to those seen during the 1998 outbreak were documented between 1992 and 1997. This study represents the first documented report of a mycotic disease of free-ranging snakes.

Meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis), a common nematode parasite in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and pathogenic for several species of ungulates in eastern North America, is not known to occur in the west. Heads of 1,902 white-tailed deer were examined for adult meningeal worm to determine geographic distribution of the parasite in Saskatchewan and Manitoba (Canada) and North Dakota (USA). Finding the parasite in a deer in eastern Saskatchewan near the Manitoba border established the current northern and western limits in Canada. Prevalence of infection was <1, 18.6, and 8.2% in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and North Dakota, respectively. Infected deer occurred throughout southern Manitoba and eastern North Dakota. Distribution appears to have changed little since the last published survey for P. tenuis in the region in 1972. We examined precipitation, temperature, deer density, and forest cover as likely correlates to prevalence and distribution of P. tenuis. Deer management units used for hunting purposes were the scale of analysis in the three jurisdictions. Presence of P. tenuis was positively correlated with precipitation during frost-free periods and deer density, and it was negatively correlated with winter and spring temperatures. Landscapes with >25 and <75% forest cover were most likely to have infected deer. Low rainfall and low density of white-tailed deer likely influence the westernmost limit of P. tenuis.

Blood films and fecal samples of the lesser prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) were examined for parasites when we surveyed specimens captured during a radio-tracking study conducted in Chaves County, New Mexico (USA). All birds were captured on the Caprock Wildlife Habitat Management Area, administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Samples were collected in late March, April, and early May 1998–2000. Oocysts were detected in five of 64 (8%) birds sampled and, upon sporulation, were determined to be an Eimeria species. This is the first eimerian reported from the lesser prairie-chicken and is described here as a new species. Sporulated oocysts are ellipsoidal, 27.1×22.7 (22–32×18–26) μm, with micropyle absent, but oocyst residuum and polar granule present. Sporocysts are ovoidal, 11.9×7.8 (10–14×6–10); a Stieda body, and sporocyst residuum are present, as is a small, indistinct substieda body. Inspection of blood smears revealed four cases of Plasmodium infection of 32 (13%) individuals sampled. The characteristics of this plasmodiid are consistent with the description of Plasmodium (Giovannolaia) pedioecetii, previously found in T. pallidicinctus (Stabler, 1978).

A total of 68 willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus L.) was collected during September 1995 from two localities in Troms County, northern Norway. Thin blood smears were prepared and examined for blood parasites. Of the 68 willow ptarmigan examined, 94% harbored one or more species of hematozoa. There were four (6%), 44 (65%), 16 (24%), and four (6%) birds infected by zero, one, two, and three species of parasites, respectively. Prevalences at the coastal locality, Kattfjord (n=43), were Leucocytozoon lovati 86%, Trypanosoma avium (26%), and microfilariae (30%). At the inland locality, Iselvdalen (n=25), prevalences were L. lovati 96%, T. avium 12%, and microfilariae 0%. We also searched connective tissues for the filaroid nematode Splendidofilaria papillocerca; in Kattfjord this parasite only occurred in adult hosts where prevalence was 94%, but the parasite was not found in Iselvdalen. To estimate the efficiency of parasite detection by standard blood sampling techniques, we sampled peripheral blood from the brachial wing vein and blood from the pulmonary system from willow ptarmigan. Sampling peripheral blood from the brachial vein led to underestimates of the prevalence of microfilariae. There was no significant difference between L. lovati and T. avium prevalence in blood collected from the brachial vein or deep circulation. Age of host had a strong impact on prevalence, especially for S. papillocerca and microfilariae.

In conjunction with reproductive and feeding ecology studies on southern giant petrels (SGP, Macronectes giganteus) blood samples were collected for baseline health evaluations. Twenty-five adult SGP from a breeding colony in Chubut, Argentina, were sampled during two consecutive breeding seasons, 1999–2000 (n=15) and 2000–01 (n=10). Values for hematology, plasma biochemistry, and minerals are described for 20 birds in apparent good physical condition. A serologic survey of exposure to selected infectious agents was also conducted on all 25 birds sampled. Southern giant petrels were serologically negative for evidence of exposure to infectious laryngotracheitis virus, avian encephalomyelitis virus, avian influenza virus, avian reovirus, infectious bursal disease virus, infectious bronchitis virus, paramyxovirus 1, 2, and 3 virus, Chlamydophila, and Aspergillus. Antibodies to avian adenovirus were found in 14% of SGP during the first sampling season, and 60% in the second year. Additionally, all birds were negative for antibodies to Salmonella pullorum at the first sampling date, but 90% had low titers the following breeding season. This study contributes to understanding the health status of South Atlantic seabirds and to establishment of baseline information for SGP. Long-term monitoring of pelagic predator-scavenger seabirds such as SGP should be established for the surveillance of marine ecosystem health.

During summer of 2001, venous blood gases were determined in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) captured by trawl (n=16) in coastal waters of South Carolina and Georgia (USA) as part of a sea turtle census program and captured in pound nets (n=6) in coastal North Carolina (USA) during a study of sea turtle population biology. Trawls were towed for 30 min, so turtles captured were forcibly submerged for ≤30 min. Pound nets are passive gear in which fish and sea turtles are funneled into a concentrated area and removed periodically. Sea turtles in pound nets are free to surface and to feed at will. Blood was obtained from the dorsal cervical sinus as quickly as possible after landing on the boat (range 2–10 min trawl, 1–2 min pound net) and at 30 min after landing just prior to release. Blood gases including pH, partial pressures of O₂ and CO₂ (pO₂, pCO₂), and lactate were measured within 10 min. Instrument measurements for pH, pO₂, and pCO₂ made at 37 C were corrected to cloacal temperature and HCO₃⁻ was calculated from temperature-corrected pH and pCO₂. Venous blood pH and bicarbonate were higher, and pO₂ and lactate were lower from pound net-captured turtles compared to trawl captured turtles at the initial sampling time. In pound net turtles, pH and bicarbonate declined and lactate increased during 30 min on deck. In trawled sea turtles, venous blood pH increased and pCO₂ and pO₂ decreased during the 30 min on deck. Both capture systems caused perturbations in blood gas, acid-base, and lactate status, though alterations were greater in trawl captured turtles.

The aim of this study was to evaluate effect of a short-acting neuroleptic (acepromazine) on capture stress response in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Sixteen roe deer were captured by drive-nets in the winters of 1998, 1999, and 2001. Roe deer were divided into two groups: animals in the treatment group received an intramuscular injection of acepromazine (0.093 mg/kg±0.003 SEM; n=8) while animals in the control group (n=8) did not receive tranquilizer. Heart rate and body temperature, as well as hematologic and biochemical indicators of stress, were used to evaluate effect of the neuroleptic over 3 hr. Heart rate decreased over time after capture in both groups (P<0.05), but stabilized sooner in the treated roe deer (75 min after capture) than in the controls (105 min after capture). Body temperature decreased over 45 min and then stabilized in both groups (P<0.05). Comparisons of blood parameters revealed significantly lower red blood cell count (RBC), lymphocyte count, hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume (PCV), and serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities in tranquilized animals compared with controls (at least P<0.05). A reduction in PCV, lymphocyte count, and serum cortisol concentrations (at least P<0.05) and an increase in serum creatinine levels (P<0.05) were recorded over time in control animals, while a reduction in RBC and hemoglobin concentration (at least P<0.05) and an increase in serum urea concentrations (P<0.05) over time were observed in the treated group. Finally, a decrease in serum lactate and potassium levels and an increase in CK, AST, ALT, and LDH activities were recorded over time in both groups. Results obtained showed the suitability of using acepromazine in capture operations in order to reduce stress response and prevent its adverse effects in roe deer. The beneficial effect was not only due to the sedative effect of acepromazine, but also to peripheral vasodilatation.

We compared the hemodynamic and respiratory effects, recovery time, and cost of two gas inhalants (isoflurane and sevoflurane) for anesthetic induction and maintenance of beaver (Castor canadensis) during surgery to implant radio transmitters in the peritoneal cavity. Heart rate, respiratory rate, relative hemoglobin saturation with oxygen (SpO₂), and body temperature were measured every 5 min for the first 45 min, and arterial blood gas was measured once, 25 min into the anesthetic procedure. Induction for either agent was smooth and rapid. Heart rate and respiratory rate both decreased during the procedure though neither was lower than baseline values reported in the literature for beaver. Relative hemoglobin saturation with oxygen, body temperature, and blood gas variables did not differ between each anesthetic regime. Both inhalants caused slight respiratory acidosis. Recovery time from anesthesia was highly variable (1–178 min) but did not differ statistically between drugs. Sevoflurane costs ($22.30/60 min) were much higher than isoflurane costs ($3.50/60 min). We recommend isoflurane or sevoflurane for anesthetic induction and maintenance of beaver because of the lack of physiologic differences.

From March 1996 to August 1999, 24 free-ranging European mink (Mustela lutreola) and 25 free-ranging polecats (Mustela putorius) were immobilized for clinical procedures and to place radio transmitters. Data were recorded during 14 and 12 trials, respectively. Animals received intramuscularly 10 mg/kg ketamine (KET) combined with 0.20 mg/kg medetomidine (MED), antagonized by 1.00 mg/kg atipamezole (ATI). Anesthesia times were similar between species. Induction was smooth and rapid (0.7–3.9 min); the degree of anesthesia and muscle relaxation was satisfactory in most animals. Two individuals showed signs of spontaneous recovery before injection of ATI. In other individuals, ATI was injected 28.1–54.0 min after the MED-KET injection and rapidly reversed the effects of the MED. Rectal temperature and heart and respiratory rates decreased significantly 5–25 min post MED-KET injection in both species. Rectal temperature successfully remained stable by placing animals on a warmed plastic table (37 C) during anesthesia. According to these results, this anesthetic protocol produces a safe and rapid immobilization in free-ranging European mink and polecats and is recommended for surgical procedures such as radio transmitter implantation. However caution is required as hypothermia can be severe. Body temperature must be monitored and means provided to maintain stability.

Avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM) was recognized in 1994 as a cause of wild bird mortality when 29 bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) succumbed to the disease at DeGray Lake, Arkansas (USA). The cause of AVM and its source remain undetermined despite extensive diagnostic and research investigations. Two years later, when AVM killed 26 eagles in the same area in Arkansas, it became apparent that American coots (Fulica americana) had identical neurologic signs and lesions, and it was hypothesized that eagles acquired AVM via ingestion of affected coots. In order to test this hypothesis, we fed coot tissues (brain, liver, kidney, muscle, fat, and intestinal tract) to rehabilitated, non-releasable red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). Five hawks received tissues from coots with AVM lesions, and one hawk received tissues from coots without brain lesions that had been collected at a site where AVM never has been documented. All hawks received 12–70 g/day (mean=38 g) of coot tissues for 28 days. All six hawks remained clinically normal during the study. The birds were euthanatized on day 29 and microscopic lesions of AVM were found in all hawks that received tissues from affected coots, but not in the hawk that received tissues from unaffected coots. This marks the first time that AVM has been produced in birds under laboratory conditions and proves that birds of prey can acquire AVM via ingestion of tissues from affected coots.

Feces of wild mammals were collected in the Bukovské Vrchy Hills (north-eastern Slovakia) in January and February 2002. The feces were examined for Lawsonia intracellularis by means of nested polymerase chain reaction. A total of 194 samples of feces from red deer (Cervus elaphus), 46 samples from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 31 samples from red fox (Vulpes vulpes), 23 samples from gray wolf (Canis lupus), and 12 samples from brown hare (Lepus europaeus) were examined. Lawsonia intracellularis was found in two samples from wolves, in two samples from foxes, and one sample from red deer. This is the first description of L. intracellularis in these three species.

Vacuolar myelinopathy was confirmed by light and electron microscopic examination of mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), ring-necked ducks (Aythya collaris), and buffleheads (Bucephala albeola) collected during an epizootic at Lake Surf in central North Carolina (USA) between November 1998 and February 1999. Clinical signs of affected birds were consistent with central nervous system impairment of motor function (incoordination, abnormal movement and posture, weakness, paralysis). This is the first report of this disease in wild waterfowl (Anseriformes).

The goal of this study was to evaluate the susceptibility of North American opossums (Didelphis virginiana) to aerosol inoculation of Mycobacterium bovis at two dose levels in order to gain information on disease pathogenesis, fecal shedding of the organism, and the potential role that opossums play in the spread of this disease in nature. Six opossums received high dose (1×10⁷ colony forming units (cfu) by aerosol inoculation, six opossums received low dose (1×10³ cfu inoculation, and six opossums were sham-inoculated with sterile water and served as controls. Lungs were the most frequently infected tissues, with nine of 12 inoculated opossums positive for M. bovis on culture. Gross lesions consisted of multifocal pneumonia and enlarged lymph nodes. Microscopically, granulomatous pneumonia and granulomatous lymphadenitis associated with acid-fast bacilli were present in eight of 12 inoculated opossums. Fecal shedding of M. bovis was uncommon at both inoculation doses. While opossums were highly susceptible to aerosol inoculation of M. bovis, they did not become emaciated or develop widely disseminated lesions. From this study, opossums may transmit tuberculosis by aerosol infection to other opossums in close contact and serve as a source of infection to carnivores that feed upon them, however, transmission of the disease to large herbivores by fecal shedding or direct contact may be less likely.

During the quarantine examination of four Pallas's cats (Otocolobus manul) imported from Mongolia in October and December 2000, intraerythrocytic piroplasms were detected on Wright-Giemsa stained blood films that were morphologically indistinguishable from other small piroplasms of felids. Further characterization of this unknown organism via polymerase chain reaction amplification, sequencing of a portion of the 18S nuclear small subunit rRNA gene, and comparisons with orthologous sequences from other piroplasms, revealed similarity to Cytauxzoon felis. This is the first report of naturally occurring erythroparasitemia in Pallas's cats and the first documented case of naturally occurring piroplasm infections in a free-ranging felid from Mongolia.

In March 2000, an approximately 30-yr-old, male coastal mountain kingsnake (Lampropeltis zonata multifasciata) presented with disequilibrium and unresponsiveness to stimuli that ultimately lead to euthanasia. Histologically, there were foci of gliosis primarily within the caudal cerebrum, brainstem, and cervical spinal cord. Several glial cells and endothelial cells contained magenta, intranuclear inclusion bodies. Electron microscopy of the inclusions revealed paracrystalline arrays of 79–82 nm, viral-like particles. DNA in situ hybridization of sections of formalin-fixed brain using a mixture of two digoxigenin-end-labeled, adenovirus specific, oligonucleotide probes at low and high stringency was positive for adenovirus.

Parasitologic and histopathologic examinations were performed on a wild Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus) with severe dermatitis from Tochigi, Japan in February 1999. The serow was infested with a large number Chorioptes bovis. Marked parakeratotic hyperkeratosis was characteristic of the lesions induced by these mites. Japanese serow is a new host of C. bovis.

Coprologic examination of nine Siberian chipmunks (Eutamias sibiricus) imported from Southeast Asia revealed infection with Cryptosporidium sp. Experimental inoculation of BALB/c mice proved their susceptibility to the infection. Infected mice shed oocysts 14–35 days postinfection. Oocyst morphology was similar to that reported for C. muris in previous studies, oocysts were 8.1 (7.0–9.0)×5.9 (5.0–6.5) μm. Clinical signs were absent in naturally infected chipmunks and experimental mice. Histologic examinations of mice revealed numerous developmental stages of C. muris in the glandular stomach. Analysis of partial small subunit rRNA gene sequences confirmed identity of these isolates as C. muris. Our results represent the first report of C. muris in members of the family Sciuridae.

Sixty-four birds of 43 species were caught at six localities in Colombia during the dry season in March 1998 and investigated for hematozoa by microscopic examination of stained blood films. Haemoproteus coatneyi, Plasmodium vaughani, Leucocytozoon sp., and microfilariae were identified. The overall prevalence of infection was 8%. Prevalences of infection for Haemoproteus spp., Plasmodium spp., Leucocytozoon spp., and microfilariae were 3%, 2%, 2%, and 3%, respectively. All hemosporidian infections encountered were of low intensity (<1% of infected erythrocytes). The low prevalences and intensities of hemosporidian parasites in this study are in accord with other records from the Neotropics.

The influence of habitat and associated prey assemblages on the prevalence of canine diseases in coyotes (Canis latrans) has received scant attention. From December 1997 through December 1999, we captured 67 coyotes in two ecologically distinct areas of Utah (USA): Deseret Land and Livestock Ranch and US Army Dugway Proving Ground. These areas differ in habitat and prey base. We collected blood samples and tested for evidence of various canine diseases. Prevalence of antibodies against canine parvovirus (CPV) was 100% in the Deseret population and 93% in the Dugway population. All juveniles in both populations had been exposed. We found no difference in the prevalence of antibodies against canine distemper virus (CDV) between the two populations (7% versus 12%; P=0.50). However, we did find an increase in antibodies with age in the Deseret population (P=0.03). Evidence of exposure to canine adenovirus (CAV) was found in both populations (52% and 72%; P=0.08). Prevalence of CAV antibodies was in-fluenced by age on both areas (Deseret: P=0.003; Dugway: P=0.004). Antibodies to Francisella tularensis were low on both areas (2% and 4%). We found a significant difference (P=0.001) in the prevalence of exposure to Yersinia pestis between the two populations: 73% in Deseret compared to 11% in Dugway. This difference is most likely due to the prey species available in the two ecologically distinct study areas.

A serologic survey for Toxoplasma gondii in 18 free-ranging forest mammal species (n=456) in French Guiana was undertaken with a direct agglutination test. Serum antibody prevalence varied from 0–71%. The relationships between ecologic features of the species and seroprevalence were investigated. Terrestrial mammals were significantly more exposed to T. gondii than other mammals. This result is concordant with oral exposure to T. gondii related to ground dwelling behavior and/or carnivory.

We determined serum biochemistry and hematologic values for island spotted skunks (Spilogale gracilis amphiala) on Santa Cruz Island (California, USA). Samples were collected from island spotted skunks chemically restrained with ketamine hydrochloride and acepromazine in August 1999 (dry season) and from skunks manually restrained in August 2000 (dry season) and January 2001 (wet season). One parameter, glucose, significantly differed with season, with higher levels during the wet season. Serum chemistry and hematologic profiles suggest that method of restraint (manual or chemical), as well as other methodologic details, may influence blood characteristics in the island spotted skunk.

The medical records of 48 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and 35 gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) examined at the Wildlife Center of Virginia (Waynesboro, Virginia, USA) from 1993 to 2001 were reviewed. The most common diagnosis in red foxes was orphaned (33%), followed by trauma (27%), undetermined diagnosis (23%), and sarcoptic mange (17%). Trauma (46%) was the most frequent cause of morbidity and mortality in gray foxes followed by orphaned (23%), undetermined (20%), toxoplasmosis (6%), presumptive canine distemper (3%), and rabies (3%). One gray fox had concurrent toxoplasmosis and presumptive canine distemper (3%). Similar diseases were detected in previous studies at a diagnostic laboratory; however in this study, trauma and orphaned animals were more common than infectious diseases. The lack of diagnostic information on some cases limited the usefulness of this study, and more emphasis should be placed on performing postmortem examinations of wildlife presented to wildlife rehabilitation centers.