Erythropoietin, a glycoprotein growth hormone that is produced primarily in the kidneys, promotes mitosis and survival of erythroid progenitors. The recent synthesis of the human form of the hormone by recombinant technology has provided a new therapeutic option, which is being used in both human and veterinary medicine for treatment of various anemias. A mature male rough-toothed dolphin, Steno bredanensis, was treated with human recombinant erythropoietin in an attempt to resolve a nonregenerative anemia. Two i.m. injections 48 hr apart were associated with an almost immediate increase in circulating immature reticulocytes, total reticulocytes, and nucleated erythrocytes. Over the next several weeks, the hematocrit, hemoglobin, and erythrocyte counts returned to normal, and the animal was subsequently released back into the wild. Endogenous erythropoietin concentrations were determined for this animal as well as three other conspecifics by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for human erythropoietin. These measurements showed circulating erythropoietin concentrations (5–20 mU/ml) similar to those of most other mammals. This study suggests that human recombinant erythropoietin can be safely and effectively used in this species and may have applicability to other cetacean species for the treatment of nonregenerative anemia. Caution should be exercised during long-term use because production of antibodies to human recombinant and endogenous erythropoietin may lead to potentially serious side effects.

Thirteen sexually mature captive male lesser Malay chevrotains (Tragulus javanicus) were each anesthetized twice with tiletamine-zolazepam for electroejaculation. Viable spermatozoa were collected from all animals. The semen was creamy, milky, pale yellowish, or watery. The mean values for ejaculate volume, sperm concentration, and percentages of sperm motility, normality and viability were 23.7 ± 2.5 µl, 366.9 ± 127.8 × 10⁶ spermatozoa/ml, 40.0% ± 3.1%, 71.4% ± 1.6%, and 59.6% ± 2.1%, respectively. Semen pH was 7–8. No adverse effects of electroejaculation were noted. These are the first reported values for semen of lesser Malay chevrotain. Electroejaculation should be usable for routine semen collection in this species.

Blood samples were collected from 64 wild North American river otters (Lontra [Lutra] canadensis) from northern and eastern New York State and analyzed for serologic evidence of exposure to selected viral agents during a 1995–1996 translocation program. No clinical signs of disease nor lesions suggestive of prior viral exposure were seen. Titers were detected for antibodies against canine distemper virus, canine herpesvirus-1, and canine parvovirus-2 but not for antibodies against canine adenovirus-1, canine coronavirus, canine parainfluenza virus, rabies virus, feline herpesvirus-1, feline calicivirus, or feline coronavirus. This is the first report of titers for antibodies against canine herpesvirus-1 in North American river otters, and it suggests a low prevalence of antibody titers against most canine viruses in otter populations in northern and eastern New York. Confounding variables in this study could include exposure to domestic dogs associated with the project, prolonged time spent in captivity, and concurrent bacterial or parasitic infection. Stress-associated humoral immune suppression could have altered serologic profiles, especially in otters exposed to dogs after trapping but before venipuncture.

A survey of gastrointestinal parasites of nonhuman primates in Gombe National Park, Tanzania, was conducted during July and August 1989. Fresh fecal samples collected from 35 baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) and 20 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) were analyzed for intestinal parasites. Parasite identifications were based upon the size and appearance of eggs and larvae on both direct and fecal flotation examinations. Seven species of helminths and three species of protozoa were noted in the chimpanzees, and seven species of helminths, two species of trematodes, and one species of protozoa were noted in baboons. An unidentified parasite, with a thick egg shell similar to that of ascarids, was noted in both the chimpanzee and baboon population. Unfortunately a definitive identification of this parasite could not be made based upon egg size and morphology alone and insufficient numbers of larva were present to aid identification. One previously unreported parasite, Schistosoma mansoni, was identified in the baboon population. This is the first report of a schistosome in Gombe's nonhuman primate population.

Hematologic and serum biochemical parameters were measured in 29 captive Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) to provide normative reference values for the species. Mean normal values and ranges were close to those reported in other species of macaques. Some significant variations related to age and sex were found.

Five chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) initially received oral droperidol sedation (1.25 mg for a juvenile chimpanzee, body wt = 18.5 kg, and 2.5 mg for adults, body wt >20 kg, range: 18.5–71 kg) followed by transmucosal carfentanil administration at 2.0 μg/kg. This preinduction regimen was developed to produce heavy sedation or even light anesthesia in order to eliminate the need for or at least minimize the stress of darting with tiletamine/zolazepam at 3 mg/kg i.m. This study was designed to assess the safety and efficacy of transmucosal carfentanil. Once each animal was unresponsive to external stimuli, or at approximately 25 min (range 24–34 min) after carfentanil administration, naltrexone and tiletamine/zolazepam (N/T/Z) were combined into one intramuscular injection for anesthetic induction. Naltrexone was administered at 100 times the carfentanil dose in milligrams. For comparison, two chimpanzees received only droperidol, 2.5 mg p.o., followed by tiletamine/zolazepam, 3 mg/kg i.m. The preinduction period for all animals receiving carfentanil was characterized as smooth, with chimpanzees becoming gradually less active and less responsive to external stimuli. Two animals became very heavily sedated at 24 and 35 min, respectively, and were hand injected with N/T/Z. The other three chimpanzees became sternally recumbent but retained some response to stimuli, and N/T/Z was administered by remote injection with minimal response. Rectal body temperatures, pulse and respiratory rates, arterial oxygen hemoglobin saturation, and arterial blood gases were measured at initial contact (t = 0 min) and at 10-min intervals thereafter. Respiratory depression was present in all chimpanzees, regardless of protocol. Mean hemoglobin saturation was 91% for both groups. Mean partial pressure of oxygen, arterial values for carfentanil-treated and control animals were 64.4 ± 7.6 and 63.5 ± 6.0 at t = 0, respectively. Only the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, arterial (Paco₂) and pH showed significant differences between treated and control animals. Mean Paco₂ was greater and mean pH lower for the carfentanil-treated group compared with the controls at t = 0 (58.9 ± 3.7 and 50.3 ± 3.1 for Paco₂ and 7.33 ± 0.02 and 7.40 ± 0.30 for pH, respectively). The results of this study suggest that oral droperidol followed by transmucosal carfentanil can be used effectively as a premedication regimen to produce profound sedation, which limits the stress of darting during parenteral anesthetic induction with tiletamine/zolazepam in chimpanzees. The main side effect of respiratory depression appears to be adequately managed by reversing the carfentanil at the time of induction.

Figure-of-eight wing bandaging is widely used to treat wing injuries, to immobilize wings before and after fracture repair, and during transient wing paralysis. However, prolonged bandaging can lead to bone loss and to contractures and reduced range of joint motion. Studies evaluating the efficacy of therapeutic ultrasound to reverse and prevent bandaging-associated contractures in pigeons (Columba livia) showed a significant increase in elbow and carpal extension after 10 twice weekly ultrasound treatments when started either 4 or 11 days after bandage placement. In addition, after 42 days of wing bandaging, three ultrasound treatments stimulated a faster reversal of carpal wing rotation loss than removal of the bandage over the 10-day treatment period. Finally, bone loss in response to 28 days of bandaging was significant, progressed at 2.8% per week, and was not affected by ultrasound treatment twice weekly during this period. Therefore, therapeutic ultrasound prevented and reversed loss of wing extension associated with figure-of-eight bandaging but did not lessen the disuse osteoporosis created by bandaging in these birds.

Anesthesia in the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) has routinely involved potent narcotic anesthetic agents such as etorphine or carfentanil with their associated adverse side effects. In captive rhinoceroses conditioned to routine handling, a combination of butorphanol and azaperone at mean (± SD) doses of 69.3 ± 18.0 mg and 103.1 ± 20.9 mg, respectively, was used to produce levels of neuroleptanalgesia ranging from light “standing” sedation to deeper planes of anesthesia producing sternal and lateral recumbency. This combination was used for repeated (minimum repeat frequency of 3 days between events) anesthetic episodes (n = 26) in two animals, with the remaining episode performed in a white rhinoceros with chronic renal disease. The action of butorphanol was satisfactorily reversed with naltrexone (125 mg i.v. and 125 mg i.m.). Results (mean ± SD) include sternal recumbency achieved in 14.1 ± 8.1 min after i.m. dosing, standing and ambulation occurred in 1.7 ± 0.6 min after reversal, heart rate was 62.0 ± 10.1 beats/min, respiratory rate was 14.7 ± 5.6 breaths/min, and percentage of oxygen saturation of hemoglobin (Spo₂) was 89.2 ± 3.0%. Without supplementation, the total elapsed time ranged from 44.9 min to 103.0 min, whereas elapsed times up to 214.3 min were achieved with supplementation (mean time to supplementation was 28.0 ± 13.9 min after initial dosing). Butorphanol and azaperone produced adequate muscle relaxation and apparently adequate analgesia for minor surgical interferences, including abdominal laparoscopy. Respiratory rates and Spo₂ measurements were improved compared with reports of using more potent opioids in this species.

Transrectal ultrasonography of a 35-yr-old captive female southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) with a history of chronic mucohemorrhagic vulvar discharge revealed right transmural uterine horn enlargement. Abdominal laparoscopic surgery, although extremely difficult because of inadequate instrumentation, permitted uterine visualization and biopsy. Standing anesthesia, incorporating butorphanol and azaperone together with local anesthetic infiltration, facilitated the laparoscopy. A leiomyoma was suspected on the basis of history, physical examination, ultrasonographic appearance, and histopathology. Prior rhinoceros laparoscopies have failed, primarily from limitations imposed by recumbency.

A 12-yr-old female free-ranging Florida panther (Felis concolor coryi) was found dead in good flesh. The panther had a ruptured thoracoabdominal aneurysm and 0.5 L of unclotted blood in its thorax. Intimal plaques 6.0 × 3.0 × 3.0 cm and 4.0 × 3.0 × 1.0 cm were present in the thoracic and abdominal aorta extending below the bifurcation of the renal arteries. Histologic examination revealed necrohemorrhagic aortitis with a mixed inflammatory infiltrate of lymphocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. Death was almost certainly due to exsanguination and hypovolemic shock secondary to the ruptured aneurysm, and the aortitis with the resultant aneurysm may have been secondary to an infectious or a toxic process. This is the first reported death of a free-ranging mammal from a ruptured aortic aneurysm.

Two captive California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) from different facilities were diagnosed with disseminated blastomycosis. The first, a 12-yr-old male, died after a 3-wk history of progressive anorexia and lethargy. Gross examination revealed acute jejunitis with focal perforation and associated peritonitis, along with severe purulent bronchopneumonia. The second, a 15-yr-old female, was euthanized after a 2-wk history of severe cutaneous ulceration and declining clinical condition. Gross examination revealed severe pyogranulomatous bronchopneumonia and ulcerative dermatitis. Histopathologic examination in both individuals revealed severe multifocal subacute to chronic pyogranulomatous pneumonia associated with massive numbers of fungal organisms morphologically compatible with Blastomyces sp. Fungal organisms were 8–20-µm-diameter broad-based budding yeasts with thick, refractile, double-contoured walls. The male sea lion had multifocal transmural Blastomyces-induced enteritis with subsequent rupture and peritonitis. The organism was also present in the liver, with minimal associated inflammation. The female had severe multifocal pyogranulomatous ulcerative dermatitis associated with large numbers of intralesional fungal organisms. Dissemination to the spleen had occurred in both animals. A serologic immunodiffusion test for Blastomyces dermatitidis was positive in the male. The presumptive primary pathogen in both cases was Blastomyces dermatitidis.

Three juvenile sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) were diagnosed with bilateral aural hyalohyphomycosis based on histopathology. All three animals were suspected to be immunodeficient based on low IgG levels determined using the zinc sulfate turbidity test. The serum and hepatic copper levels of one animal were below the bovine reference range. Clinical signs in the three animals included bilateral ventral deviation of the pinnae with multifocal subcutaneous aural tumefaction and poor body condition. Numerous septate, nonpigmented fungal hyphae were found within the auricular cartilage, dermis, and subcutaneous granulomas. No significant fungal agents were isolated by culture, and no signs of systemic fungal dissemination were identified except for a concurrent fungal rhinitis in one animal.

A previously stranded 30-kg female green turtle (Chelonia mydas) was referred to the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the University of Florida following a 2-mo history of anorexia, intermittent regurgitation, decreased fecal production, and positive buoyancy of the right side. Radiographs confirmed gaseous distension of bowel loops suggestive of intestinal obstruction. The coelom was surgically approached through a plastron osteotomy, and a 540° volvulus of the small intestine was identified and derotated. An intestinal stricture was present at the site of the volvulus, and segments of bowel orad to the stricture were greatly distended. Following resection of abnormal bowel, the osteotomy was stabilized using self-tapping screws and figure-eight wire, and the defect was sealed with fiberglass cloth and fast-drying epoxy resin. A leiomyoma associated with the focal stricture was identified by histology. Appetite and defecation returned to normal. Six months after surgery, the turtle had regained normal buoyancy and showed no further clinical signs of gastrointestinal obstruction.

Thirteen Chinese goral (Nemorhaedus goral arnouxianus) (five males and eight females) were each given 0.8 mg of melengestrol acetate orally in pelleted food for 224 days. The previous breeding season, six of the eight females calved (two were immature). No calf was born during the treatment season. The season after treatment, six females calved (one was immature prior to treatment). Two females were moved to other institutions, and the status of these is unknown. On the basis of this information, melengestrol acetate in feed was successful in preventing conception and was reversible. This treatment did not prevent the siring of offspring the following year and did not prevent a female that was subadult prior to the treatment from calving.

From 1991 to 1995, eight New World nonhuman primates of the family Callitrichidae belonging to the collection of Fundação Parque Zoológico de São Paulo died of toxoplasmosis. Of the eight affected nonhuman primates, four were Leontopithecus chrysomelas (one male, three females) and four were Saguinus imperator (two males, two females). The most commonly affected organs were the lungs, liver, and lymph nodes, with hemorrhagic and necrotic lesions. Histopathologic examination revealed protozoa that were morphologically consistent with Toxoplasma gondii. Immunohistochemical assays were strongly positive for T. gondii.

A captive 5-yr-old castrated male Rocky Mountain wapiti (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) developed stranguria. Rectal palpation and physical examination indicated urethral obstruction that was subsequently relieved by urethrostomy and required only minimal aftercare. The wapiti was able to urinate freely after surgery; however, the obstruction recurred 27 mo later. Urethral catheterization relieved the second obstruction, which was caused by a large calculus composed of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. Urolithiasis may have been associated with a diet high in calcium, and urethral obstruction may have been associated with castration at an early age. The wapiti continued to urinate freely 9 mo after relief of the second obstruction and 3 yr after the initial surgery.

Epierythrocytic parasites associated with a severe anemic episode have not been previously reported in the opossum. A Wright-Giemsa–stained peripheral blood smear from an anemic North American opossum (Didelphis virginiana) revealed numerous organisms attached to red blood cells either singularly or in chains. Ring forms of the organism were common and could be found free in the plasma. Electron microscopy revealed that these organisms were attached to the intact plasma membrane in depressions on the surface of red blood cells. Delicate fibrils between the organism and adjacent membrane were observed. The organisms were round to oval with a diameter of 300–750 nm and were enclosed by a single limiting membrane. The light and electron microscopic features of these epierythrocytic organisms are similar to those reported for Eperythrozoon and Haemobartonella species.

A safe and effective anesthetic regime for use in arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) cubs was developed. During July 1996, six free-ranging 6–8-wk-old cubs were captured near their den in Vindelfjallen Nature Reserve, Sweden. Medetomidine and ketamine HCl, followed by atipamezole, were selected for the anesthetic trial because of the well-documented safety and efficacy of this drug combination in a broad range of species. The dosage regimen used was 50 µg/kg medetomidine combined with 2.5 mg/kg ketamine followed by reversal with 250 µg/kg atipamezole. Induction was rapid, with a mean induction time of 1 min and 32 sec (range: 58–150 sec). The cubs were anesthetized for a mean time of 18 ± 5 min (range: 13–25 min). Serially recorded heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature, and pulse oximetry were stable throughout the anesthetic period for all cubs. Anesthetic depth was suitable for safe handling and minor clinical procedures, including venipuncture. Following atipamezole, all cubs were standing within 12 ± 7 min (range: 5–24 min) and fully recovered at 27 ± 5 min (range: 19–36 min). This information will be useful for future captive breeding and management programs involving the endangered arctic fox.

Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites were seen in the placenta of a late-term aborted Greenland muskox (Ovibos moschatus wardi) fetus in a captive herd at the San Francisco Zoo. The organism stained with anti-T. gondii polyclonal rabbit serum but not with anti-Neospora caninum serum. The dam had a Toxoplasma titer of ≥1:3,200 at the time of abortion and in each of the previous 3 yr (modified agglutination test). The muskox is a new host record for T. gondii.

Two nonrelated but paired red-handed tamarins (Saguinus midas) presented with diffuse, multifocal, raised, nonpruritic, hyperkeratotic lesions on the appendages and face. Skin biopsies identified acarids and skin scrapings confirmed demodex-like mites. The animals were treated with ivermectin, at the endoparasite dose, which initially resulted in resolution of clinical signs; however, signs recurred after numerous treatments. After four treatments with amitraz dips, demodicosis lesions resolved.

An 18-mo-old male red wolf (Canis rufus) presented with footpad hyperkeratosis, suppurative paronychia, distal limb pyoderma, and peripheral lymphadenopathy. Diet for the previous 11 mo consisted of a mixture of two commercially prepared dog foods with a mineral supplement containing primarily calcium. Culture of the draining tracts on the distal limbs yielded a mixed population of opportunistic bacteria. Histopathologic findings were consistent with a diagnosis of zinc deficiency. Medical therapy consisted of 15 mg/kg amoxicillin p.o. b.i.d. and 10 mg/kg zinc sulfate p.o. s.i.d. Calcium supplementation was discontinued. Clinical signs resolved by 10 wk after the initiation of treatment.

Infection with Cladosporium sp., a deuteromycete, caused a deep dermal ulcer that extended to bone in a cultured tomato clownfish (Amphiprion frenatus). The infection may have been secondary to immunosuppression resulting from transport or confinement-induced stress or may have resulted from chronic exposure to copper. Reports of fungal infections in tropical marine fish are rare.

An oral mass was observed in a Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus). Squamous cell carcinoma was diagnosed by histologic examination of a biopsy specimen. A series of intralesional injections using fluorouracil resulted in complete regression of the neoplasm with no recognized adverse effects.

Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens was associated with diarrhea in a 4-yr-old female captive-bred red-footed tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria). Diagnosis was based on bacterial culture, detection of C. perfringens enterotoxin in feces, and exclusion of commonly recognized pathogens. After treatment with metronidazole, normal feces were passed and C. perfringens enterotoxin was no longer detected in the feces. Although the role of C. perfringens cannot be determined definitively from this case, this pathogen should be considered in cases of diarrhea in tortoises and, perhaps, other reptiles.

Sera from nine species of clinically healthy nonhuman primates were assayed for T₄ and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) using human immunoassays (a fluorescence polarization immunoassay for T₄, a microparticle enzyme immunoassay for TSH). The T₄ levels ranged from 20 to 132 nmol/L (x̄ ± SD = 62.8 ± 24.7 nmol/L). Levels of TSH were detected only in western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and Sumatran orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) (range, 0.4–10.8 mIU/L; detectable limit = 0.01 mIU/L). The results suggest that the antibodies used in the commercial TSH immunoassay assessed in this study cross-react with gorilla and orang-utan TSH but not with TSH of primates of the genera Macaca, Papio, Erythrocebus, Ateles, Leontopithecus, and Lemur.