The identification of three Arizona ridgenose rattlesnakes (Crotalus willardi) with Salmonella arizonae–associated osteomyelitis led to a 5-yr prospective study of radiographic signs and Salmonella intestinal carriage rates in a 19-member colony of this rattlesnake species. Ventrodorsal radiographs were performed and cloacal swabs were cultured for Salmonella spp. annually. Ten snakes survived the 5-yr period, with six of them remaining free of bony lesions. Three snakes that had no bony lesions in 1995 developed radiographic signs of osteomyelitis during the study. Six snakes with bony lesions at the beginning of the study died or were euthanatized due to osteomyelitis during the study. The radiographic signs of osteomyelitis were progressive for five snakes that were serially radiographed. Only one snake with radiographic signs of osteomyelitis at the beginning of the study was still alive at the end of the study, and this animal's bony lesions were more extensive at the end. Thirty-nine intestinal S. arizonae isolates, representing 13 serotypes, were obtained from the 19 snakes. Salmonella arizonae serotype 56:Z4,Z23 was isolated only once from a cloacal culture, from a snake that had no radiographic bone lesions. Twelve extraintestinal Salmonella isolates, representing two serotypes, were isolated from six snakes. All extraintestinal isolates except one were of S. arizonae serotype 56:Z4,Z23, and all isolates from bone were of this serotype. One snake with characteristic bone lesions died, and Providencia rettgeri was cultured from each of the tissues cultured, whereas no Salmonella spp. were isolated from this snake. Salmonella arizonae serotype 56:Z4,Z24 appears to have a tropism for bone and other extraintestinal sites in C. willardi and may cause a progressive, ultimately fatal disease in this species.

Blood samples, fecal samples, and cloacal swabs were collected from 42 bog turtles (Clemmys muhlenbergii), including 14 wild males, 22 wild females, three captive males, and three captive females, in Virginia and North Carolina, USA. Samples were analyzed for hematologic and plasma chemistry values, Mycoplasma sp. antibodies, intestinal parasites, and normal cloacal flora.

Virus isolation attempts were carried out on wild-caught Xenosaurus grandis, X. platyceps, and Abronia graminea from Mexico. These animals were also tested for exposure to paramyxoviruses and reoviruses. Pharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected from 30 lizards, and blood was collected from 23 lizards. A cytopathogenic virus was isolated from the cloacal swab of one of the X. platyceps. The isolate was identified as a paramyxovirus on the basis of its sensitivity to chloroform, resistance to 5-iodo-2′-deoxyuridine, size and morphology of the viral particles, hemagglutination of chicken erythrocytes, and serologic reaction with paramyxovirus-specific antisera. Antibodies against the paramyxovirus isolated in this study were found in four animals from three species. Antibodies against a different paramyxovirus isolated from a monitor lizard were found in seven animals from three species, showing that all the species tested are susceptible to paramyxovirus infections. Antibodies to a reptilian reovirus were found in three of the X. grandis.

A total of 110 sites from five zoological institutions were examined to determine whether fungi associated with sick building syndrome (SBS) were prevalent in the exhibits or night-time holding facilities and to investigate whether the presence of these organisms was associated with declining breeding rates or increases in morbidity and mortality (or both). Each site was sampled with an Andersen two-stage air sampler using Sabourauds dextrose agar media and a Burkard personal volumetric air sampler. Suspect surfaces were also sampled. High levels of airborne Penicillium chrysogenum, a fungal species associated with poor indoor air quality, were recovered from 16 sites out of all five institutions. Five culturable growth sites of Stachybotrys chartarum, a species strongly associated with SBS and commonly known as “black mold,” were recovered from surfaces at two institutions. A wide range of other fungal species was recovered in low numbers from all institutions. A Fisher exact test analysis showed a significant nonrandom association between high levels of P. chrysogenum and sites with records of poor animal health. This study indicated that significant numbers of airborne fungi associated with SBS and poor indoor air quality are present in zoological institutions and that they could affect animal health and reproduction rates and zoo staff.

Hematologic and serum chemistry values were determined for chicks, juveniles, and adult farmed lesser rheas (Pterocnemia pennata). Blood samples were taken during March–April 1998 from the brachial veins of lesser rhea, including 64 chicks, 24 juveniles, and 36 adults, raised in Patagonian farms (Argentina). Lesser rhea chicks had significantly lower erythrocyte counts, hematocrit, hemoglobin, red cell indices, and copper than did the juveniles and adult individuals. No significant differences were observed between females and males. Most values were similar to those reported for other ratites. The data obtained provide hematologic and serum chemistry values for lesser rhea from farms.

Thirty-two anesthetic episodes used a combination of tiletamine–zolezepam (50 mg/ml each), ketamine (80 mg/ml), and xylazine (20 mg/ml) at various dosages for routine diagnostic and minor surgical procedures in 13 captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). The mean dosage (0.023 ± 0.003 ml/kg) provided rapid induction with a single i.m. injection along with safe predictable working time, good muscle relaxation, and analgesia. Yohimbine administration subsequently accelerated smooth and rapid recovery.

Blood samples were collected from 121 individuals of three species of wild-caught nonhuman primates from Kenya, including African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops), Syke's monkeys (C. mitis), and olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis), and were examined for circulating Trypanosoma brucei and for T. brucei antigen and anti-trypanosome antibody. Indirect antibody enzyme–linked immunosorbent assay detected titers of anti–T. brucei antibodies in 13 of the primates sampled, and field-oriented latex agglutination test detected invariant T. brucei antigens in 10 (8.3%) of the primates. However, no trypanosomes were visible in blood smears, on wet blood films, or by buffy coat technique, nor were they demonstrable in a subset of C. aethiops individuals that were studied using mouse subinoculation.

Twelve captive wild-caught adult arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) were anesthetized a total of 24 times for an equal number of surgical procedures involving implantation of heart rate (HR) and core body temperature transmitters (T_b) between October 1995 and April 1997. Xylazine–ketamine and medetomidine–ketamine anesthesia was used, resulting in an unacceptably high death rate. One out of four foxes anesthetized with xylazine–ketamine died, whereas two of nine foxes anesthetized with medetomidine–ketamine died out of a total of 20 surgical procedures. Durations of the surgeries for implantation of T_b transmitters and HR transmitters were 73 ± 7 min and 95 ± 13 min, respectively.

Diffuse hyperplastic goiter was diagnosed by histopathology in 11 perinatal bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) that died at four separate zoos and aquaria. Thyroid morphology of these animals was compared with the histologically normal thyroids of two stranded wild bottlenose dolphin calves, a neonate and a 2-mo-old calf. Histologic changes included reduced follicular luminal diameter, markedly reduced or absent luminal colloid, hypertrophy of follicular epithelium, and follicular dysplasia. The etiology of the thyroid gland lesion was not identified. Cause of death was not determined for most of these animals, but they were presumed to have died from metabolic derangements associated with the thyroid lesion, drowning, or dystocia.

During a 10-yr period, a killer whale (Orcinus orca), two Pacific white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), and two bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), all housed at SeaWorld of Texas from 1991 to 2001, were infected with fungi from the class Zygomycetes. In four out of five cases, the fungi were identified as either Saksenaea vasiformis or Apophysomyces elegans. All fungi in the class Zygomycetes aggressively invade the vascular system. Death occurred within 23 days after the initial clinical signs. The primary site of infection involved the s.c. tissue and skeletal musculature. In one case, infection originated in the placenta and uterus of a periparturient animal. All cases exhibited systemic spread of the organisms, including two to the central nervous system. The fifth and most recent case, a bottlenose dolphin, was treated with liposomal nystatin, an antifungal formulation with reduced nephrotoxicity. This animal initially responded to therapy; however, 14 days after cessation of therapy, fungal growth reoccurred. Thus, the animal was euthanatized 39 days after the initial clinical signs. This drug represents a promising treatment option if combined with early disease detection and aggressive tissue resection.

A 28-yr-old female California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) in a commercial aquarium developed an ulcerated lingual tumor and died. Necropsy revealed a moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma. Immunohistochemical staining and electron microscopic studies revealed that the tumor cells were strongly positive with anti–keratin-cytokeratin antibody and had abundant tonofibrils and desmosomes. The neoplasm had metastasized to a mandibular lymph node.

An 18- to 25-yr-old intact female Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris) was diagnosed antemortem and postmortem with nasopharyngeal myxosarcoma metastatic to the lung, chronic lymphoplasmacytic otitis media, and lymphoplasmacytic and eosinophilic stomatitis. Myxosarcomas are rare in domestic animals and seldom metastasize; this tumor has not been previously reported in an exotic felid. Computed tomography of the skull was used during the diagnoses.

Tuberculin test results from 214 animals in three Swedish zoos, tested between the years 1993 and 2000, were compiled from a questionnaire sent out to zoo veterinarians. Comparative testing with bovine and avian tuberculin was used on various sites of injection. A total of five skin test reactors were found: three cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in one zoo and two tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) in another zoo. Postmortem culture from one of the tapirs revealed growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and a stamping out policy was adopted in the herd. Tuberculosis in the primates was ruled out by further investigations. Zoo veterinarians should try to adopt a common scheme for the regular testing of zoo animals to improve the diagnostic ability and comparison of results between institutions.

Cerebral arteriosclerosis was observed upon necropsy of a 36-yr-old female captive polar bear (Ursus maritimus) that developed a sudden onset of seizure-like activity and died. The medium and large cerebral arteries of the meninges had moderate to severe diffuse discoloration and mineralization of the matrix of the tunica media, with little or no associated cellular reaction. Scanning electron microscopy of the affected arteries showed discrete crystalline calcified deposits in the media and sclerosis of the arterial wall. There were no lesions in the brainstem. The findings suggested a sudden and rapidly fatal loss of blood flow to the brain caused by long-standing arterial lesions. Incidental findings included numerous 0.1- to 10-cm-diameter, hepatic cysts lined with hyperplastic biliary epithelium, a unilateral, unipolar, 3-cm-diameter renal tubular adenoma, and approximately 250 active Baylisascaris sp. nematodes in the intestines.

An undersized, 16-mo-old, captive wood bison (Bison bison athabascae) was observed with dysphagia and postprandial regurgitation. The animal died shortly after anesthesia was initiated for diagnostic purposes. At necropsy, a persistent right aortic arch and aberrant left subclavian artery were diagnosed. The vascular ring structure around the esophagus and the trachea caused a megaesophagus with complete esophageal obstipation and ulcerative esophagitis. The aberrant left subclavian artery did not significantly compromise the esophagus. Persistence of the right aortic arch is relatively rare in ruminants and has not previously been reported in a bison.

A captive adult male Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) was treated for chronic footpad ulcers associated with pacing on concrete cage surfaces. Combination therapy of oral fluoxetine and acepromazine administration to eliminate pacing behavior, daily application of moisturizing ointment, and oral vitamin E supplementation resulted in complete resolution of all footpad lesions. Subsequent clinical episodes completely resolved with similar treatments.

A 3-yr-old African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) was submitted with dysphagia, weight loss, and tetraparesis. A palpable mass was found on the ventral neck. Histologic examination revealed replacement of the thyroid gland by a highly cellular, expansile, and infiltrative mass composed of lobules of polygonal cells separated by fine fibrovascular septa. Examination of ultrathin sections revealed tumor cells with few to many dense-core neuroendocrine granules, approximately 100–200 nm in diameter, and stromal amyloid. Immunohistochemical stains were positive for neuron-specific enolase. Only rare cells had positive immunohistochemical staining for calcitonin. Findings are consistent with a neuroendocrine tumor of C-cell origin. This is the first report of a C-cell carcinoma in a hedgehog.

Twelve reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) were immobilized by hand injection in indoor stalls with established optimal hand-injection doses of medetomidine–ketamine and then moved to outside paddocks where they were immobilized again with the same dose by dart. The reindeer in paddocks were immobilized a second time with a 50% higher dose, hereafter referred to as the optimal darting dose. Mean time to first sign of sedation was longer and mean induction time was significantly longer (55% and 79%, respectively) when the optimal hand-injection dose was dart injected versus hand injected. Mean time to first sign of sedation was not significantly shorter (although 21% shorter, numerically) but mean induction time was significantly shorter (30%) when animals were darted with the optimal darting dose versus darted with the optimal hand-injection dose. There were no significant differences in respiratory rate, rectal temperature, and relative arterial oxygen saturation in animals injected with different doses and by different routes, but there was a significantly lower heart rate in animals dart injected with the optimal darting dose versus dart injected with the optimal hand-injection dose. All animals responded at similar rates to atipamezole injection.