Failure of passive transfer of immunity (FPT) leads to increased calf morbidity and mortality and requires intensive, time-sensitive, and often expensive management for nondomestic ruminants. Without species-specific information with which to make informed decisions, neonatal data from domestic ruminants are often extrapolated to nondomestic zoo-housed species. To date, there have been no studies evaluating FPT in sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii). The goal of the present study was to establish parameters to characterize adequate passive transfer in sitatunga calves and compare them to published reference intervals in other species. Medical records of 22 sitatunga calves (12 female, 10 male) were reviewed. Seventeen of these calves were defined as “healthy,” having survived at least 60 days without colostrum administration or a plasma transfusion. Calf weight, serum glucose, serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), total protein (TP), globulin concentrations, and results of a zinc sulfate turbidity test (ZSTT) were noted where possible. Mean birth weight of healthy calves at 24 hr was 4.5 kg (range: 3.76.5 kg, n = 12). The mean blood glucose in healthy calves was 152 mg/dl (range: 80–182, n = 16), mean serum TP concentration was 5.9 g/dl (range: 4.9–7.5, n = 16), mean serum globulin concentration was 3.3 g/dl (range: 1.7–4.7, n = 17), and mean serum GGT concentration was 466 U/L (range: 91–1901, n = 16). A ZSTT was performed for 10 healthy calves, resulting in four negative ZSTT results despite having no clinical signs of FPT and the calves having been observed nursing before testing. Sitatunga appear to have lower values for normal FPT parameters than those developed for domestic cattle. This study illustrates the difficulty of cross-species comparisons, as even closely related species can vary greatly in biologic parameters.

The thoracic limb anatomy of anteaters in the family Myrmecophagidae is specialized for accessing termite and ant nests and for defense purposes. In the case of the northern tamandua (Tamandua mexicana), the forelimbs are also adapted for arboreal and terrestrial locomotion. Unfortunately, this species faces many conservation threats, such as habitat loss and traffic accidents, and injured individuals are frequently taken to wildlife rehabilitation centers. However, lack of knowledge of the radiographic osteoanatomy of this species may prevent appropriate management of injuries and thereby reduce the chances of successful release and survival. In order to fill this knowledge gap, this article describes for the first time the radiographic anatomy of the thoracic limb of the northern tamandua using four standard views and one additional view. The additional orthogonal view helps visualize structures, such as the hamatus process and the sesamoid bone, that are otherwise difficult to visualize due to the natural forearm position of anteaters. Additionally, some fractures and physeal growth plates were identified in one juvenile individual. Further radiographic investigations should be conducted on anteaters to provide more tools for diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of these animals.

The eastern grey squirrel (EGS), Sciurus carolinensis, is a tree squirrel native to the eastern United States. This species commonly presents to wildlife medical clinics for a variety of human-related injuries including confrontations with road traffic and pet predation. The purpose of this study was to assess initial examination findings as prognostic indicators for survival in EGS. The medical record database of the University of Illinois Wildlife Medical Clinic was searched from January 2012 through December 2018 for records of EGS weighing <300 g. The squirrels were identified as survivors (individuals surviving, released, or transferred to a rehabilitator within 72 hr of intake) or nonsurvivors (individuals euthanized or dying within 72 hr of intake after receiving medical care). Presenting weight, health status, method of feeding, and singleton versus group presentation were categorically recorded for each case. The data were modeled using a series of candidate logistic regression models fitted using the generalized linear model. An information theoretical approach determined the best fit model. A total of 955 EGS were included in this study. Factors that predicted a nonsurvivor status included EGSs that presented with any health system abnormality (odds ratio [OR], 4.81; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.34–6.72), EGSs that presented between December and May (OR, 1.60; 95% CI, 1.12–2.27) rather than between June and November, and individuals with neurologic signs (OR, 2.61; 95% CI, 1.51–4.51) compared with EGSs without neurologic signs. Despite not being included in the final model, the presence of respiratory signs (OR, 3.43; 95% CI, 2.41–4.89) and diarrhea (OR, 4.01; 95% CI, 1.59–10.09) were significantly associated with a higher likelihood of nonsurvival status. Wildlife medical clinics and rehabilitation centers may use this information by initiating more aggressive therapies or instituting distinct euthanasia protocols for EGS that present with body system abnormalities, particularly neurologic clinical signs, and those that present in the winter months.

This study aimed to evaluate the ophthalmic parameters, morphometric features of corneal tissue, and arrangements of corneal stromal collagen fibers in crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous), a species of neotropical wild canid. We conducted the study on six juvenile crab-eating foxes (12 eyes), whilst 16 eyes were obtained post mortem from eight adult crab-eating foxes. The research was divided into two stages. In the first stage, eye anatomical characteristics, tear production (Schirmer 1 tear test, STT1), intraocular pressure (IOP), ocular echobiometry, and specular microscopy parameters related to morphology of corneal endothelium were studied in juvenile animals. In the second stage, morphometric features of corneal tissue (central corneal thickness [CCT] and corneal epithelium thickness) and arrangements of stromal collagen fibers were studied using eyes from adult animals. The main findings were that crab-eating fox eyes have vertical-slit pupils, holangiotic retina, and reference values (mean ± SD) of 13.37 ± 3.79 mm/min for STT1 and of 10.43 ± 3.84 mmHg for IOP. The ocular echobiometric features observed in crab-eating foxes are different from those reported for domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). Conversely, the corneal endothelial parameters are similar to those of domestic dogs. The CCT measured by tissue morphometry was 0.54 ± 0.06 mm, and the corneal epithelium thickness was 60.13 ± 8.71 µm. Mean coherency related to alignment of collagen fibers was 0.66 ± 0.12. The crab-eating fox cornea had predominantly thick collagen fibers. Crab-eating fox eyes have morphofunctional peculiarities. They resemble the eyes of domestic dogs in some aspects, but diverge in others.

Fourteen lowland nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) in managed care were successfully anesthetized for a total of 17 anesthetic events using either a combination of butorphanol (0.75 ± 0.15 mg/kg), azaperone (0.25 ± 0.05 mg/kg), and medetomidine (0.30 ± 0.06 mg/kg) (BAM) or medetomidine (0.17 ± 0.01 mg/kg), azaperone (0.22 ± 0.02 mg/kg), and alfaxalone (0.52 ± 0.08 mg/kg) (MAA) delivered intramuscularly via dart. Mean time to initial effect, sternal recumbency, lateral recumbency, handling, and intubation were recorded. The nyala were maintained in sternal recumbency with supplemental oxygenation until 60 min after initial injection. Cardiopulmonary effects were recorded every 5 min after handling until reversal. Arterial blood samples were collected every 15 min for analysis. Level of sedation and quality of recovery were scored. Anesthesia was antagonized with atipamezole (at 5 mg per mg of medetomidine) for both protocols and naltrexone (at 2 mg per mg of butorphanol) for the BAM protocol delivered intramuscularly via hand injection. Mean time to extubation, head control, and standing post reversal were recorded. No hyperthermia, acidemia, apnea, or tachycardia occurred; however, animals did display hypoxemia. Two animals in the BAM cohort required supplementation to facilitate handling. These drug combinations provided satisfactory levels of sedation in most cases for safe handling and minor procedures in lowland nyala under managed care.

Contraception is needed to prevent overpopulation and inbreeding in highly fecund captive bat colonies. Reports on surgical contraception in bats are limited. The objective of this study was to describe surgical castration techniques in a megachiropteran and a microchiropteran fruit bat species. Open orchiectomy by transfixing ligation of the spermatic cord was performed in 14 Ruwenzori long-haired fruit bats (Rousettus lanosus) (RL-LIG), and orchiectomy with radiosurgery alone was performed in 125 Jamaican fruit-eating bats (Artibeus jamaicensis) (AJ-RS) and one Ruwenzori bat (RL-RS). The surgical techniques were not compared in different species with the exception of the one Ruwenzori bat operated with RS. Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen via facemask. Preoperatively, all bats received butorphanol and subcutaneous fluids. Meloxicam was administered postoperatively for the RL-LIG. For the RL-LIG, anesthesia lasted 49 ± 15 min (mean ± SD) with a total surgery time of 26 ± 12 min. In comparison, the RS was considerably shorter, lasting 10 ± 3 min for anesthesia and 5 ± 2 min for surgery. Complications were rare, with a morbidity rate of 6.7% with the RL-LIG (prolonged recovery [n = 1]) and of 4.8% with the RS (dyspnea [n = 3], hemorrhage [n = 2], and prolonged recovery [n = 1]). One of the cases of hemorrhage was in the single Ruwenzori bat castrated using the RS technique. Mortality rate was 1.6% (n = 2) with the RS. No mortality occurred with the RL-LIG. In conclusion, using radiosurgery alone appears to be a safe and rapid surgical technique in smaller species of fruit bats. For larger species, such as the Ruwenzori fruit bats, ligation or use of an advanced vessel sealing system is recommended.

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) causes a disease that primarily affects juvenile Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants, causing acute hemorrhage and death. Due to the severity of the disease, many zoos have developed EEHV active surveillance programs. Currently, trunk washes are the standard for testing elephants for shedding of EEHV, but it has also been detected from other mucosal surfaces. This study compared the efficacy of oral swabs and trunk washes for the detection of EEHV shedding using previously validated quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) methods. Oral swab and trunk wash samples from three juvenile elephants at the Dublin Zoo in Ireland were collected in tandem and tested from April to September 2017. Of the 51 paired samples, 21 trunk wash samples were positive for EEHV1, while only 2 of the oral swab samples were positive for EEHV1, suggesting that trunk wash samples are more effective for detecting shedding of EEHV in Asian elephants compared with oral swabs.

Cardiac disease has been recognized as a major cause of death in captive nonhuman primates, which necessitates diagnostic (imaging) techniques to screen for and diagnose preclinical and clinical stages of possible cardiac conditions. Echocardiography is currently the most commonly used diagnostic tool for evaluation of cardiac anatomy and function. Complete with thoracic radiography and blood levels of two cardiac biomarkers, N-terminal probrain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT), it gives an extensive examination of the cardiorespiratory system. The purpose of this cross-sectional cohort study is to describe normal thoracic anatomy using thoracic radiography, and to provide normal values for echocardiographic measurements in 20 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta). Additionally, cardiac biomarkers were determined. Three radiographic projections of the thoracic cavity and a complete transthoracic echocardiography were performed in 20 clinically healthy ring-tailed lemurs during their annual health examinations. Similar standard right parasternal and left apical echocardiographic images were obtained as described in dogs and cats and normal values for routine two-dimensional (2D-), time-motion (M-) and Doppler mode measurements were generated. Furthermore, a noninvasive smartphone base ECG recording and blood concentrations of cardiac biomarkers were obtained. Other radiographic measurements are provided for the skeletal and respiratory systems such as the trachea to inlet ratio and tracheal inclination. Knowledge of the normal radiographic thoracic and echocardiographic anatomy and function are fundamental for the diagnosis and follow-up of cardiac disease in affected individuals and for species screening, and will be of added value in future research in and conservation of this endangered species.

Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) are native to western North America and are found in 24 Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)–accredited institutions. Acute-phase proteins (APP) are a broad class of proteins that are stimulated in response to inflammation and have been shown to be a sensitive measure of inflammation in equids and ruminants. In this study, blood samples from clinically normal free-ranging and captive populations of pronghorn were analyzed using assays for protein electrophoresis (EPH) and APP, including serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (HP), to develop preliminary ranges to gauge potential differences between these populations. Additional samples were taken from clinically abnormal captive pronghorn with facial abscesses. By EPH measurements, albumin: globulin ratio mean and SE were significantly different (P <0.05) with 1.02 (0.08) for captive populations and 1.91 (0.05) for free-ranging populations. Total protein mean and SE were significantly different (P <0.05) for captive and free-ranging populations, respectively 5.6 (0.3) g/dl and 6.9 (0.1) g/dl. Mean and SD of SAA for captive pronghorn were 1.4 (3.2) mg/L, and were significantly different from the free-ranging population, which was below the limits of detection for (P <0.05). There was no difference in HP levels between these groups. In a case study of a pronghorn with facial abscesses, elevated levels of HP, but not SAA, suggested that HP maybe useful in certain disease states. Future studies should explore the use of these biomarkers as tools to monitor general health, prognosis, and subclinical disease.

Gastrointestinal (GI) pathology is common in elasmobranchs; however, information regarding normal GI transit time and the effect of therapeutics on GI motility is lacking. The objective of this study was to determine baseline gastric emptying and GI transit times in cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) and whitespotted bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) via radiographic barium sulfate contrast studies. Additionally, a pilot study was undertaken to determine the effect of metoclopramide on GI transit time in whitespotted bamboo sharks. Eight cownose rays and eight whitespotted bamboo sharks were administered a 98% w/w barium sulfate suspension at 8 ml/kg via orogastric tube. Post-contrast radiographs were obtained at 2 min, 3, 6, 12, and 23 hr for rays; and 2 min, 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 25, 30, 36, and every 12 hr until complete gastric emptying occurred for sharks. In cownose rays, the mean and standard error were established for time of initial spiral colon filling (3.4 ± 0.4 hr), complete spiral colon opacification (12 ± 0 hr), initial spiral colon emptying (21.6 ± 1.4 hr), and complete gastric emptying (23 ± 0 hr). In bamboo sharks, the mean and standard error were established for time of initial spiral colon filling (5.3 ± 0.5 hr), complete spiral colon opacification (12.4 ± 1.3 hr), initial spiral colon emptying (22.5 ± 2.7 hr), and complete gastric emptying (39.9 ± 3.3 hr). Cownose rays had a significantly shorter time to spiral colon filling and complete gastric emptying compared with bamboo sharks (P < 0.05). Whitespotted bamboo sharks (n = 8) were administered metoclopramide (0.4 mg/kg orally once daily for 10 days) and the barium series was repeated. Complete gastric emptying time was significantly shorter in treated sharks compared with control (P < 0.05), suggesting that metoclopramide may be a useful therapeutic for GI motility disorders in elasmobranchs.

There is an unmet need for specific diagnostics of immune perturbations and inflammation in beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) clinical care. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) has been used to measure immunomediator gene transcription in beluga whales. The study hypothesis was that a qPCR-based immunomediator assay would supplement routine clinical data with specific and sensitive information on immune status. Two beluga whale clinical cases provided an opportunity to test this hypothesis: a whale with a skin laceration and a whale with gastrointestinal inflammation. Mitogen-stimulated immunomediator gene transcription (MSIGT) was compared between the cases and healthy contact whales. In both case studies, mitogens increased transcription of IL1B, PTGS2 (Cox-2), TNF, HIF1A, and IL2 but decreased IL10 transcription in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from the abnormal whale over the control. Correlations were identified between most immunomediators tested and one or more standard blood clinical values. Considering all 15 immunomediators tested, the whale with gastrointestinal inflammation had a more unique MSIGT signature than the whale with a laceration. These results support further elucidation of beluga whale PBMC cytokine profiles for use as immune biomarkers.

Reptarenaviruses infect a variety of boid and pythonid snake species worldwide and have been shown to be the cause of inclusion body disease (IBD). Little is known about the correlations between virus infection and clinical disease, as well as the effects of viral infection on the immune system and the blood protein fractions. The goal of this study was to examine the differences in the plasma protein fractions in reptarenavirus reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)-negative and -positive tested snakes with and without clinical signs of disease. Blood from a total of 111 boa constrictors (Boa constrictor) was evaluated. Reverse transcription PCRs and H&E staining for inclusion bodies were carried out on each sample for the detection of reptarenavirus, and the plasma protein fractions were evaluated by capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE). Thirty four of the 111 evaluated snakes were positive by RT-PCR and 19 of the 34 showed clinical signs of disease. In comparison with IBD-negative healthy boa constrictors, the positive snakes with clinical signs had significantly lower albumin levels (P = 0.0052), lower A: G ratios (P = 0.0037), and lower α-globulin levels (P = 0.0073), while their γ-globulin levels were significantly higher (P = 0.0004). In the same comparison, clinically healthy arenavirus-positive boas showed only significantly lower α-globulin (P = 0.0124) and higher γ-globulin levels (P = 0.0394). The results of the present study indicate that reptarenavirus infection may influence plasma protein fractions in boa constrictors.

Techniques for anesthesia of green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) are required for medical treatment. The use of spinal anesthesia has been reported in a few species of turtles for different purposes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of 2% lidocaine for spinal anesthesia of green sea turtles undergoing surgical removal of cutaneous fibropapillomas. Ten free-ranging green turtles presenting with cutaneous fibropapillomas were included in the study. Animals were accidentally captured or rescued by local fishermen and brought to the Ubatuba Research Base (Sao Paulo, Brazil) of the Brazilian Sea Turtle Conservation Program for rehabilitation. Animals were administered 2% lidocaine (0.2 ml/10 cm of carapace) in the epidural/subarachnoid space of the tail and monitored throughout surgery. The technique was effective for all animals, with fast onset of motor and sensory blockade (3 ± 1.76 min) and relatively fast recovery time (83.9 ± 16.2 min). Fibropapillomas were removed from all animals with no signs of pain (i.e., no behavioral response during surgical procedure, such as head and forelimb movement, showing discomfort) and they were all rehabilitated and successfully returned to their natural habitat. The technique was considered effective, safe, and affordable for use on green turtles undergoing surgical removal of cutaneous fibropapillomas.

Significant impacts of global climate change on wildlife have been documented and are projected to continue. Reptiles have been suggested as being especially susceptible to these effects along with other anthropogenic impacts on their environment. A retrospective review of medical records for 2,356 wild eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) admitted to the Turtle Rescue Team (TRT) at the North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine between 1996 and 2017 was performed in order to: 1) report common presenting complaints, 2) describe the timeline of when box turtles were admitted to the TRT for each year of the study, and 3) investigate temporal shifts in turtle admissions and associations with changes in environmental temperature over a 22-yr period. The most common presenting complaint was vehicular trauma (n = 1,195) with over 70% of the caseload associated with anthropogenic impacts. Average monthly temperatures from 1996 to 2017 for Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, were extracted from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration climate database. By comparing the pre- and post-2006 years using the Mann–Whitney test, we found that both the annual peak temperature and the annual timing of admission to the TRT have shifted significantly or with a strong tendency towards significance (P = 0.0008 and 0.052, respectively). Annual peak temperature has increased by 1.3°C, and timing of admission has shifted 18 days earlier between pre- and post-2006 years. This supports the hypothesis that box turtle activity patterns are shifting and that these changes are potentially related to climate.

The anatomy of the avian gastrointestinal (GI) tract is uniquely suited to each species' dietary requirements. African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) are charismatic and popular exhibit animals. As their prevalence grows, there is a need to understand their unique digestive tract to diagnose abnormalities. Reference material specific to the digestive tract of piscivores is scant, and knowledge of the GI tract of a healthy penguin is based on information from other birds. The purpose of this study is to determine the normal gross anatomy, transit time, and histopathologic structures of the penguin GI tract. Twelve clinically healthy penguins were selected for this study from the colony at the Maryland Zoo in Baltimore, which, at the time of this study, consisted of 55 birds. All penguins underwent a barium contrast study, and radiographic images were obtained until the entire GI tract was empty. Approximately 2 wk later, each penguin was anesthetized, and an endoscopic evaluation of the anterior GI tract was performed. Time from barium administration to defecation ranged from 17 to 70 min, and on average, barium clearance was 17.6 hr (range, 5–36 hr). Fluid from the ventriculus had an average pH of 2.75 and contained a mixed bacterial population. Koilin presence and thickness appreciated on endoscopy did not correspond with the thickness determined on histopathology. The results of this study provide a comparative baseline to use during diagnostic workups and help guide treatment decisions.

Pododermatitis is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in flamingos under human care; management and treatment options vary widely based on subjective assessment from veterinarians or animal care staff (ACS). The objective of this study was to evaluate the agreement of pododermatitis severity scores assigned by veterinarians, ACS, and veterinary students when given a standardized rubric. Twenty-four greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) from a single zoo-managed flock were evaluated over time for pododermatitis. The individual feet of each bird were imaged, blinded, randomized, and scored for hyperkeratosis, fissures, nodules, papillomatous growth, and overall subjective score by seven evaluators (three veterinary specialists, two ACS, and two veterinary students) using a previously established flamingo pododermatitis scoring rubric. Interindividual reliability between evaluators and intraindividual agreement among specialists was determined. Reliable interindividual agreement was seen for fissures (Krippendorff's α [KA] = 0.807) between all seven evaluators, whereas the other individual lesions had very low reliability. Between the specialists, fissures had low interindividual reliability (KA = 0.782). Two specialists had strong intraindividual agreement for fissure score and one specialist had strong intraindividual agreement for overall subjective score (Cohen's κ [CK] 0.8–0.9, P < 0.01). Hyperkeratosis, papillomatous growth, nodules, and overall subjective score had low to moderate inter- and intraindividual reliability or agreement (KA, 0.06–0.49; CK, 0.02–0.8). In conclusion, the current scoring method for flamingo pododermatitis does not supply a reliable method for tracking foot health based on images alone across timepoints, except for fissures. Further analysis of the scoring system being used during a physical examination is warranted.

Costa Rica undertakes continuous efforts to recover the native population of macaw species through rehabilitation programs for breeding and releasing birds in protected areas. In the summer of 2018, a total of 107 scarlet (Ara macao) and 93 great green (Ara ambigua) macaws were sampled in four wildlife rehabilitation centers in Costa Rica. Fecal samples representing 200 individuals were analyzed for intestinal parasites, and 23 individuals were sampled for hemoparasites. Ascaridia and Capillaria were found in fecal samples. No hemoparasites were found. The distribution of percentage of infection was analyzed by location, species, and housing type. As part of a health screening prior to release, parasitological examination is recommended.

Systemic isosporosis (formerly atoxoplasmosis), is a protozoal infection that causes death in nestling and fledgling passerine birds impacting ex situ breeding and reintroduction programs. Because current antemortem diagnostic tests lack sensitivity, a qPCR was developed for detection of Isospora spp. using primers and a fluorescent-tagged MGB probe targeting the large subunit (28s) ribosomal RNA gene (assay efficiency = >100%; sensitivity = <1 dsDNA copy). The assay was used to screen postmortem frozen or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples from passerine birds (n = 24; 12 with confirmed systemic isosporosis), whole blood and feces (n = 38) from live passerines, and other tissues infected with phylogenetically similar protozoa. The qPCR identified Isospora sp. DNA in tissues from 21/24 birds including 12/12 birds with cytologically-histologically confirmed infection (100% sensitivity) and 9/12 birds lacking microscopic organisms. The assay also amplified Eimeria sp. DNA; however, sequence analysis ruled out infection in the passerine cases. Blood and/or feces were positive in 30/38 birds, and in only 7/38 birds, blood and feces both contained Isospora sp. DNA. Finally, the qPCR was utilized to screen 30 consecutive daily fecal samples from live passerines (n = 20) to determine optimal sampling protocols. One or more of the daily fecal samples were positive in all 20 birds. In individual birds, the interval between positive qPCR amplification results ranged from 0 to 23 days, with an average of 5.85 days. Simulated application of 13 potential sample collection schedules was used to identify the sensitivity of repeated testing for identification of infected birds. Increased sampling days resulted in higher sensitivity but increased both cost and animal handling requirements. Based on statistical analysis and clinical considerations, the testing recommendation for detection of fecal shedding was collection and assay of five consecutive daily fecal samples, which had an average diagnostic sensitivity of 0.86.

Three captive macropods comprising three different species sustained unilateral antebrachial fractures. All fractures were assumed to be trauma related, although the specific circumstances surrounding each case was unknown. Each fracture was surgically repaired with type Ia (unilateral, monoplanar) external skeletal fixators, which were all removed approximately 3 mo postoperatively. Although each animal experienced at least one complication, all animals showed adequate bridging and remodeling at the fracture sites and had good-to-excellent return to normal function after fixator removal. This case series is the first to describe the successful repair of antebrachial fractures using external skeletal fixation in captive macropods and details some of the complications that can occur with postoperative management of captive animals.

Over a period of 5 mo, seven out of eight American white pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) housed on a spring-fed pond at a zoo died or were euthanized. Clinical signs included inability to stand, anorexia, and weight loss. Clinicopathologic findings included heterophilic leukocytosis and elevated creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase. Histopathologic findings on all pelicans demonstrated severe, chronic, diffuse rhabdomyofiber degeneration and necrosis, making vitamin E deficiency a differential diagnosis despite routine supplementation. Based on tissue and pond water assays for the cyanobacterial toxin, microcystin, toxicosis is suspected as the inciting cause of death in these cases. We hypothesize that vitamin E exhaustion and resultant rhabdomyodegeneration and cardiomyopathy were sequelae to this toxicosis.

Moxidectin is a commonly used lipophilic anthelmintic with activity against a wide range of nematodes. It is labeled for use in cattle by oral, topical, and subcutaneous routes. In semi-free ranging conditions, many anthelmintics are remotely administered intramuscularly due to an inability to administer by other routes without restraint. During 2015–2016, three animals including a roan (Hippotragus equinus), sable (Hippotragus niger), and Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) treated with moxidectin developed clinical signs consistent with toxicosis. The primary sign was severe neurologic depression within 12 to 24 hr. Based on recommendations in domestic cases, animals were treated with intravenous lipid therapy and supportive care while diagnostic testing was performed. All three initially improved prior to succumbing to secondary problems associated with prolonged recumbency. Moxidectin has been administered remotely on 97 occasions in eight different exotic ruminant species at Fossil Rim, with only the above three cases showing clinical signs of toxicosis. Two potential causes in these cases include poor body condition leading to a smaller volume of distribution, thus allowing higher concentrations to overwhelm the blood–brain barrier, or a genetic defect similar to some herding dog breeds. Given that cases were seen in three different species at an overall low incidence within a given species, a genetic defect is considered unlikely. The animals affected did have significantly lower body condition score than conspecifics, and it is considered likely that this predisposed these animals to toxicosis. Therefore, caution should be used when administering moxidectin intramuscularly in animals in poor body condition.

Genetic diversity of captive wild animals can be enhanced by moving those individuals with valuable genes between collections and through introduction of a new pair from a range country. This requires movement of animals, which is inherent with disease risks, such as the introduction of pathogenic Mycobacterium sp. (MTBC) into a zoological collection. Decisions need to be made based on the outcome of perimovement disease screening using an array of tests, the majority of which are unvalidated in the species. A pair of endangered Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica) imported from India to the United Kingdom were screened for MTBC using the comparative intradermal tuberculosis (TB) test, the feline interferon-γ blood test, and the experimental bacteriophage assay. Reactions on all three tests prompted screening of the three resident Asiatic lions using the same tests, all of which were negative for MTBC. Based on these test results, the decision had to be made to exclude the genetically valuable pair from the current collection. MTBC could not be identified using further tests, including culture and PCR on a bronchoalveolar lavage, on feces, or on postmortem tissues. This case series highlights the usefulness of a control group when interpreting unvalidated test results for detection of MTBC, the value of training big cats for conscious blood sampling, and the practical implications of placing the comparative intradermal TB test in the eyelids, when dealing with a species that requires a general anesthetic for most hands-on interventions.

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) threatens Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population sustainability in North America. Clusters of cases have also been reported in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Risk to range country elephant populations is unknown. Currently, EEHV detection depends upon sampling elephants trained for invasive blood and trunk wash collection. To evaluate noninvasive sample collection options, paired invasively collected (blood, trunk wash and oral swabs), and noninvasively collected (chewed plant and fecal) samples were compared over 6 wk from 9 Asian elephants and 12 African elephants. EEHV shedding was detected simultaneously in a paired trunk wash and fecal sample from one African elephant. Elephant γ herpesvirus-1 shedding was identified in six chewed plant samples collected from four Asian elephants. Noninvasively collected samples can be used to detect elephant herpesvirus shedding. Longer sampling periods are needed to evaluate the clinical usefulness of noninvasive sampling for EEHV detection.

Blood samples collected from captive Southern lechwes (Kobus leche) were used to develop reference intervals for complete blood count and serum biochemistry values. The study population consisted in 108 healthy individuals, including 62 females and 46 males and 38 neonates (<2 days old), 27 juveniles (2 mo to 2 yr old), and 43 adults (>2 yr old) from the Réserve Africaine de Sigean, Sigean, France, between 2014 and 2016. No significant effects of sex and season of sampling were found. No significant differences were found for all hematology and biochemistry parameters between juveniles and adults, and their results were then combined. Significant differences were found between animals >2 mo old and neonates for most tested parameters; in particular, neonates had lower hemoglobin, eosinophil count, alanine transaminase, and total protein values, but higher alkaline phosphatase values. The reference intervals obtained were similar to values previously reported for other Bovidae species.

Melioidosis is an emerging infectious disease of humans and animals caused by the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei and endemic in tropical regions, principally Southeast Asia and northern Australia. In September 2017, after Hurricane Maria impacted the Dolphin Discovery facility in the Federation of St. Kitts and Nevis, a juvenile male bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) died within 96 hr of presenting with acute anorexia, lethargy, and respiratory distress. Histopathology demonstrated necrohemorrhagic bronchopneumonia, necrotizing hepatitis, splenitis, and lymphadenitis, with intralesional Gram-negative bacilli. B. pseudomallei was confirmed by bacteriological culture and DNA sequencing. This case emphasizes the challenges of melioidosis diagnosis, the importance of awareness for both early detection and efficacious treatment, and recognition in tropical regions where it has been either not reported or underreported. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first case of cetacean melioidosis in the Caribbean Islands, an often severe and fatal disease with increasing prevalence on the American continent.

A freshly dead juvenile bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), recovered from the waters near Sand Key, Clearwater, FL, was imaged postmortem using computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging prior to conventional necropsy. The pattern of imaging findings in the brain was compatible with severe multifocal meningoencephalitis with intralesional necrosis and/or hemorrhage, and the pattern of imaging findings in the lungs was compatible with severe multifocal bronchopneumonia. The subsequent investigation included necropsy, histology, culture, and molecular diagnostics and demonstrated disseminated coinfection of dolphin morbillivirus and Aspergillus fumigatus. This is the first report documenting the cross-sectional imaging findings of this important cetacean comorbidity and demonstrates advances in modern, cooperative investigations of marine mammal mortality events.

A 32-yr-old male black-handed spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) with marked kyphosis and reduced spinal range of motion developed intermittent regurgitation, which was managed with an acid reducer. Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) was suspected in this animal due to radiographically evident ossification of the anterior longitudinal ligament. At repeat radiographic evaluation 1.5 yr later, due to weight loss and increased frequency of regurgitation, the cervical spine was deviated ventrally and appeared to be impinging on the thoracic inlet. The spider monkey was humanely euthanized due to poor prognosis, and the presumptive diagnosis of DISH was confirmed via postmortem computed tomography and necropsy. DISH has not been reported in black-handed spider monkeys, and secondary dysphagia, an uncommon but recognized consequence in humans, has not been reported in a nonhuman primate. Earlier recognition of this possibly underreported disease process may increase treatment options and effectiveness of intervention.