The Queensland spanner crab Ranina ranina is the target of a relatively data-poor, low-value fishery that has been managed for the last decade by using total allowable catches (TACs) in an individual transferable quota system. Despite the fact that this management system is usually applied to data-rich fisheries, it has been successfully used on this data-poor fishery. The key factor has been the use of harvest strategies that consisted only of simple decision rules that were appropriate given the size of the fishery and knowledge of the resource. These strategies were tested in a management strategy evaluation framework; however, it was not traditional in that (1) the operating model (or “true” resource to be managed) was not conditioned to data but rather was set to parameter ranges seen as appropriate for the resource and (2) the TAC was not set by using a stock assessment model, so the magnitude of the stock biomass was unknown. The important test was whether one could develop harvest strategies that were robust to this large uncertainty in knowledge by using only commercial catch rates. The management system had to be adaptive over time as more was learned about the biology of the species and how the harvest strategies affected the management of the fishery. This meant that the TAC was almost always set using the harvest strategies, but modifications to the decision rules were made on several occasions as more was learned about the fishery. The transparency and simplicity of the rules mean that the industry was empowered to make significant contributions to fine tuning the harvest strategies. As a result, the process does not rely solely on scientific advances but on the pooled knowledge of scientists, industry, and managers in a cooperative environment.

Classical approaches to fisheries stock assessment rely on methods that are not conducive to managing data-poor stocks. Moreover, many nearshore rocky reef species exhibit spatial variation in harvest pressure and demographic rates, further limiting traditional stock assessment approaches. Novel management strategies to overcome data limitations and account for spatial variability are needed. With the ever-increasing implementation of no-take marine protected areas (MPAs), there is great potential for improving decision making in management through comparisons of fished populations with populations in MPAs at spatially explicit scales. We developed a management strategy that uses a combination of data-based indicators sampled inside and outside of MPAs as well as model-based reference points for data-poor, sedentary nearshore species. We performed a management strategy evaluation of this MPA-based decision tree model for a hypothetical population of grass rockfish Sebastes rastrelliger in California. We introduced process, observation, and model uncertainty in numerous scenarios and compared these scenarios with the precautionary approach currently used to manage data-poor species. Our model consistently improved total catches while maintaining the biomass and spawning potential ratio at levels well within acceptable thresholds of management. We suggest further exploration of this MPA-based management approach, and we outline a collaborative research program in the California Channel Islands that may well be suited for testing an experimental management procedure.

The hook-and-line fishery for inshore rockfishes Sebastes spp. in British Columbia is diverse, with participants in directed commercial, recreational, and Aboriginal fisheries, as well as other incidental fisheries coastwide. Rockfish species targeted in this fishery are yelloweye rockfish S. ruberrimus and quillback rockfish S. maliger. Expansion of the fishery outpaced management's effort controls, and catch quotas were implemented in the early 1990s. Conservation concerns largely based on life history traits resulted in restrictions to the directed fishery, but other fisheries remained unmanaged. A growing mismatch between the demands of fishery management and the difficulties of inshore rockfish stock assessment led to the development of a conservation strategy in 2001. The strategy included the following four components: comprehensive catch monitoring; dramatically reduced fishing mortality; extensive fishery closed areas; and improved stock assessment and monitoring. Targets were met in 2002 by reducing the fishing mortality rate by 75% in the protected waters east of Vancouver Island (inside area) and by 50% in the remaining open-coast waters (outside area). Research survey programs were reinstated by the provision of funds in 2003. An intricate catch accounting and monitoring proposal from industry set the rules in a pilot groundfish licensing integration program launched in 2006. Progress continues to be made on this difficult task. Areas closed to all fishing were implemented in 30% of the rockfish habitats throughout the inside area and in 20% of the outside area in 2007. Key to the development of the strategy was the consultation process. Consensus-based decision making within the Department of Fisheries and Oceans and the organization and commitment of industry participants contributed to this success. Open communication and respectful conduct brought participants to the table and kept them engaged. Without the consultation process and the benefits from this exchange, the conservation strategy would not have been possible.

The New Zealand fishing industry has adopted a strategy of using fishers to collect biological sampling data from their fisheries, usually on a voluntary basis. This approach can be adopted for data-poor fisheries to obtain data that would otherwise not be available. This article describes a wide range of such programs implemented in fisheries spanning a period of 15 years. This article also reveals the designs employed, how these data have been used in stock assessment and fisheries management situations, and some of the problems encountered in administering these programs. I conclude that while these programs need supervision and support in order to succeed, the benefits that can accrue are considerable. These benefits include a dynamic sampling design that should ensure good representation of the fishery and the involvement of fishers in collecting the data used to manage their fishery.

The habitat needs of nearshore juvenile rockfish Sebastes spp. have rarely been studied but are an essential component of habitat identification for management. We investigated the relationships between habitat type, species composition, and growth of juvenile rockfish after settlement into nearshore reefs and estuaries in central Oregon. We identify and prioritize essential fish habitat (EFH) for blue rockfish S. mystinus and black rockfish S. melanops caught by minnow traps and by scuba divers with hand nets. Species were confirmed through genetic analysis. Our nearshore samples were dominated by blue rockfish, while estuary samples contained almost exclusively black rockfish. Settlement patterns suggest that black rockfish had a strong preference for anthropogenic habitat (docks, pilings, jetties) within the Yaquina Bay estuary. Growth was not significantly different among habitats or sampling years for either black rockfish or blue rockfish. We identify estuaries as EFH for black rockfish juveniles along the central Oregon coast and confirm nearshore reef areas as EFH for blue rockfish juveniles. Small sample sizes of juvenile yellowtail rockfish S. flavidus and widow rockfish S. entomelas suggest that estuaries are also important for these species.

Giant grenadiers Albatrossia pectoralis are caught as bycatch in deep-sea commercial fisheries in relatively large numbers. The population appears to be stable, although there is no directed fishery, catch limits, or reporting requirements. The purpose of our study was to describe and quantify the reproductive life history characteristics and natural mortality of female giant grenadiers. During the summers of 2004 and 2006, a total of 338 specimens were collected from the Gulf of Alaska. Every phase of reproductive development was found, suggesting a protracted annual spawning season. An ovarian wall thickness technique was used to successfully place 31% (n = 24) of the fish with an unknown maturity status into a known category. Female age at 50% maturity was 22.9 years, and preanal fin length at 50% maturity was 26 cm. Total fecundity ranged from 35,000 to 231,000 oocytes (mean = 106,761), with a mean mature oocyte diameter of 1.26 mm. We developed a new technique for preparing otoliths for age determination by grinding off the distal surface to elucidate the growth zones; age ranged from 14 to 58 years. Estimates of natural female mortality ranged from 0.052 to 0.079 and estimates of total female mortality from 0.061 to 0.149. This life history information will be essential for future management of giant grenadier populations in the North Pacific Ocean.

We conducted hydroacoustic, gill-net, and push trawl surveys to quantify changes in habitat-specific fish size and biomass in shallow (<2-m) estuarine waters of Barataria Bay, Louisiana, in order to evaluate essential fish habitat. Surveys were conducted monthly between June 2003 and May 2004 among regions located along a north–south salinity gradient. The fish length distributions derived from the gill-net and push trawl catches showed moderate concordance with the measured target strength distributions, indicating that our integrated approach more effectively characterized the fish community than using only a single gear type would have. Acoustic estimates showed that biomass was highest during fall (mean ± SE; 2.30 ± 0.27 g/m³) and next highest in spring (1.49 ± 0.20 g/m³), with relatively low biomass during summer (0.70 ± 0.14 g/m³) and winter (0.86 ± 0.14 g/m³); pelagic fish biomass from nets was low during winter (53.9 ± 14.9 grams per unit effort [gpue]) but relatively high in fall (846.1 ± 207.2 gpue), spring (774.3 ± 175.5 gpue), and summer (620.3 ± 140.7 gpue). Oyster habitat supported a greater biomass of pelagic fish (acoustic survey: 1.54 ± 0.15 g/m³; gill-net survey: 467.3 ± 81.0 gpue) than soft-bottom habitat (acoustic: 0.94 ± 0.11 g/m³; gill-net: 315.2 ± 54.8 gpue). Among regions, the greatest biomass of pelagic fish was observed at polyhaline stations (acoustic: 1.78 ± 0.19 g/m³; gill-net: 654.3 ± 136.5 gpue), followed by mesohaline (acoustic: 1.18 ± 0.15 g/m³; gill-net: 378.5 ± 79.1 gpue) and oligohaline stations (acoustic: 0.82 ± 0.12 g/m³; gill-net: 228.3 ± 50.2 gpue). Gill-net biomass was linearly related to the acoustic biomass estimates of small pelagic fish. The complementary, multigear approach proved to be useful in evaluating habitat use and may be particularly helpful in identifying and monitoring ecosystem reference points to evaluate change and in standardizing ecosystem-based assessment approaches.

The availability of up-to-date information for managing marine resources is limited worldwide. In California, lack of data is hindering the execution and evaluation of two recent state laws, the Marine Life Management Act and the Marine Life Protection Act. The inability to meet the objectives of these laws is particularly acute for large cryptic benthic species (e.g., crabs, lobster, and prawns) that support valuable trap fisheries. Such species are not readily quantified by conventional methods and thus are not usually included in existing monitoring efforts. We explored the integration of data collection with ongoing commercial crab fishing activities to address this information gap and developed sampling regimes that provided accurate estimates of at-sea catches that could show the status of crab populations. Crab catches sampled in port represented only a subset of the catch at sea owing to selective harvesting of the catch (i.e., sorting) and thus would be a poor estimator of wild stocks. We developed a framework for addressing data accuracy and validity, data management and sharing, incentives, compensation, and long-term funding. Our findings suggest that data collection programs in which fishermen, managers, and scientists collaboratively design, collect, and analyze data are well suited for trap fisheries, particularly those that include multiple species or practice high rates of selectivity. The resulting recommendations for ensuring that the process is transparent and that the data are accurate and integrated into management include having (1) well-defined goals and appropriate, scientifically sound data collection methods, (2) hands-on training for participants, (3) validation of the collected data, (4) well-defined procedures for handling confidential data, (5) an adequate funding source, and (6) timely and consistent reviews of the data with subsequent actions as needed. This program offers a sound solution for obtaining comprehensive fishery information in a more cost-effective manner than is currently available.

There is growing interest in models of marine ecosystems that deal with the effects of climate change through the higher trophic levels. Such end-to-end models combine physicochemical oceanographic descriptors and organisms ranging from microbes to higher-trophic-level (HTL) organisms, including humans, in a single modeling framework. The demand for such approaches arises from the need for quantitative tools for ecosystem-based management, particularly models that can deal with bottom-up and top-down controls that operate simultaneously and vary in time and space and that are capable of handling the multiple impacts expected under climate change. End-to-end models are now feasible because of improvements in the component submodels and the availability of sufficient computing power. We discuss nine issues related to the development of end-to-end models. These issues relate to formulation of the zooplankton submodel, melding of multiple temporal and spatial scales, acclimation and adaptation, behavioral movement, software and technology, model coupling, skill assessment, and interdisciplinary challenges. We urge restraint in using end-to-end models in a true forecasting mode until we know more about their performance. End-to-end models will challenge the available data and our ability to analyze and interpret complicated models that generate complex behavior. End-to-end modeling is in its early developmental stages and thus presents an opportunity to establish an open-access, community-based approach supported by a suite of true interdisciplinary efforts.

The thrust of this paper is that decision rules for the management of data-poor fisheries cannot be based on expert judgment alone. Such rules need to specifically link management responses to the values of the indicators available for the fishery and their trends. Prior simulation testing is needed to confirm that the application of any rules suggested is likely to achieve the objectives sought for the fishery. The management procedure (MP) approach (also called management strategy evaluation), which provides a framework for such testing, is summarized briefly. How this approach could be used to develop a decision rule for a fishery for which the only indicator available is the mean length of the catch is presented as an example. The extent to which the ability to meet management objectives could be improved if an unbiased index of relative abundance were available, and an MP based on a fitted population model applied, is illustrated. An MP developed for the fishery for Patagonian toothfish Dissotichus eleginoides off the sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands is summarized. This illustrates how the MP testing framework can be used in circumstances in which the available indicators conflict, leading to considerable uncertainty about the present resource status. The information content of indicators is closely related to the extent to which they vary about trends in the underlying resource attributes (e.g., catch per unit effort and underlying abundance). The compilation of lists of the statistical properties (such as the coefficients of variation and autocorrelations) of the residuals about detrended time series of the indicators, together with their likely relationships to the underlying attribute, for fisheries worldwide is suggested. This would provide a sound basis for specifying error structure in the simulation tests advocated for both generic and case-specific decision rules for data-poor fisheries.

A comprehensive resource management plan for the Taunton Bay estuary, Maine, was developed to support the estuary's capacity to accommodate human uses without degrading ecosystem integrity or resilience. The initial phases of this plan, which has little precedent in the Gulf of Maine, target issues of immediate concern regarding environmental alteration and stock depletion associated with fisheries for four benthic species. Having no dedicated funding, our overall approach to developing ecosystem-based fisheries for this estuary relies heavily on thrift and efficiency, two attributes not usually associated with managing for ecosystem complexity. Despite our gaining a better understanding of this estuary through site-specific research and management activities, the complexity of the ecosystem's components and the unpredictability of its responses to management actions leave much uncertainty. Advancing a nascent, ecosystem-based management effort under such conditions requires the adoption of coping strategies that allow positive shifts in management. Our overall approach emphasizes using alternative knowledge systems to their best advantage, encouraging the participation of and provision of guidance by local resource users, prioritizing key information needs, conducting local research and monitoring, creating opportunities for prompt management corrections, striving for fairness to and stewardship from resource users, and encouraging a long-term commitment to this process.

Area-based fishery management and ecosystem-based management strategies are considered beneficial marine resource management tools, but they require finite information about the structure and function of ecosystems to evaluate populations and describe the effects of fishing on ecosystems. The required information is not likely to be obtained from sporadic, fishery-dependent data collected from data-poor fisheries, and funding constraints preclude extensive fishery-independent surveys. This situation has led to an interest in relating or combining information from a variety of disparate sampling methods. From 2003 to 2006, we investigated the relationships between estimates of catch per unit effort (CPUE) and the abundance of fishes generated from typical nearshore commercial fishing operations and estimates of density and abundance derived from scuba surveys in the same locations. The relationships between CPUE and the density estimates derived from different sampling methods were found to be statistically significant in the case of many of the common species sampled across sites in Carmel Bay, California. The compounding effects of within-sample variance and the error associated with the regression equations, however, would result in poor confidence in the values translated from one sampling method to another. Different sampling methods may provide reasonable estimates of population trends, but they are sufficiently different and variable as to preclude the use of a scaling factor to standardize population estimates among sampling methods. Also, the differences in species composition (i.e., relative CPUE or density among species) produced by each sampling method were significant and were also affected by habitat relief and sample depth. Nonetheless, our results suggest the value of a cost-benefit analysis that would allow managers to design optimal sampling strategies for characterizing CPUE relationships within a region of interest. A sampling program that benefits from the complementary strengths of fishing gear and scuba sampling will probably result in the most comprehensive description of nearshore fish assemblages.

Offshore petroleum platforms in California's Santa Barbara Channel have been shown to be of ecological importance for local fish populations; however, before our investigation, no data existed on the fish assemblages associated with the platforms on the San Pedro Shelf further south. Our surveys of these platforms in 2006 and 2007 indicate that there is a core group of warm–temperate nearshore reef species in the midwater depth (<30 m), including California sheephead Semicossyphus pulcher, blacksmith Chromis punctipinnis, garibaldi Hypsypops rubicundus, opaleye Girella nigricans, and kelp bass Paralabrax clathratus. Platforms located further from shore (i.e., offshore platforms [>14 km]) had a strong seasonal presence of pelagic fishes (primarily jack mackerel Trachurus symmetricus) and recruit blacksmiths. At platforms closer to shore (i.e., inshore platforms [<4.8 km]), sea basses (Serranidae) and surfperches (Embiotocidae) were predominant; only slight seasonal variations were observed, which were attributed to prespawning aggregations of barred sand bass Paralabrax nebulifer. At the offshore platforms total fish density had a negative relationship with depth but a positive relationship with water temperature; conversely, total fish biomass exhibited a positive relationship with depth but a negative relationship with temperature. In contrast, at the inshore platforms both total fish density and biomass increased with increasing water temperature. With the exception of blacksmiths, nearshore reef fishes showed significantly greater densities of adults than juveniles. Furthermore, some species were observed spawning at these structures. Therefore, the San Pedro Shelf platforms may provide suitable habitat for several species of nearshore reef fish. Removing the upper levels and superstructure of the offshore platforms to a depth of 25 m (the partial removal decommissioning option) would eliminate critical habitat for several fish species and result in a potential loss of 95% of the total fish density and 77% of the total fish biomass, thus reducing the productivity advantages of some of these structures.

The Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico (GOM) stocks of king mackerel Scomberomorus cavalla are genetically distinct but have overlapping winter ranges around South Florida. Understanding the factors driving the relative contribution of each stock to South Florida winter landings is necessary for effective management. The contribution of the Atlantic stock was estimated for the 2006–2007 and 2007–2008 fishing seasons using otolith shape as a natural tag. Analysis of otolith shapes from king mackerel sampled in summer (when the Atlantic and GOM stocks were presumed to be geographically separated) revealed significant sex and stock effects. Discriminant function analysis conducted with otolith morphometric indices and Fourier harmonic amplitudes as classification variables produced jackknifed classification success rates ranging from 60% to 73%. Maximum likelihood estimates of the Atlantic stock's contribution to winter landings indicated that there was a spatial gradient, the lowest contribution (mean = 25%) occurring off southwestern Florida and the highest (mean = 48%) off southeastern Florida. Estimates of the Atlantic stock's contribution to the easternmost zone increased from December through March, possibly reflecting the northward spring migration of both stocks. A comparison of contemporary and historic estimates dating back to the 1996–1997 fishing season revealed evidence of a long-term increase in the GOM stock's contribution, which may be driven by a dramatic increase in the size of the GOM stock and a gradual decline in that of the Atlantic stock over the time period considered.

Analysis of the perceptions of commercial fishermen, marine scientists, and other stakeholders of the Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank ecosystem regarding collaborative fisheries research revealed that the benefits of collaboration have been extensive and that a loss of further research opportunities would be consequential. To date, more than 1,000 individuals have participated in research initiatives dedicated to promoting collaboration between scientists and fishermen. A series of eight public meetings were held in the summer of 2008 to determine from fishermen, scientists, and others how this collaboration has affected them, their communities, and the management of important marine resources. Of the 142 attendees, participation was greatest among fishermen (28%) and scientists (24%). The impact of collaborative fisheries research most frequently cited was an increase in the regional capacity to conduct research, utilizing the knowledge and expertise of fishermen and industry vessels as research platforms. Improvements in communication, relationships, and trust between science, industry, and other stakeholders were also lauded. In addition to the social impacts, the economic benefits included enhanced gear efficiency, new fishery opportunities, and help in sustaining fishing operations in times of more restrictive fisheries management. The most frequently cited potential impact of a loss in future funding were probable limits to the capacity of science and management to address local, emerging, or regulatory priorities. Less funding would result in fewer opportunities for stakeholders to work together, build trust, and network. We conclude that because the demands for stakeholder engagement and scientific information will only increase with the global shift toward ecosystem-based management, programs specifically designed to foster collaboration will play a critical role.

This article explains the integration of an ecosystem into a collaborative management plan to restore New England's depleted multispecies groundfish stocks and decimated coastal fishery. Applying lessons learned from Maine's successful fishery for lobsters Homarus americanus, the Downeast Groundfish Initiative (an eclectic group of fishermen, scientists, and concerned individuals) created a new groundfish management approach designed to nest seamlessly within existing federal and state management systems and be compatible with a total allowable catch (TAC) approach, though it does not require TAC as the primary management tool. The plan resolves fine-scale issues affecting the fishery's biological productivity and addresses the economic, social, and cultural factors confronting fishing communities. The inadequacy of systemwide assessments in detecting local changes in marine ecosystems led to the creation of smaller, contiguous coastal shelf management units each of which encompasses the subpopulation of a key species such as Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. Each unit would have an inshore core layer encompassing the species' spawning grounds and nursery habitats while providing a limited, small-scale fishery for local fishermen using selective, habitat-friendly gear. A buffer layer outside the core area that brackets coastal shelf migration routes would also support a fishery using all legal gear types but with constraints, and an outer layer would provide a fishery operating under current federal regulations. The core and buffer areas would be collaboratively managed to enhance local stock recovery by local advisory councils of fishermen functioning under state administration and regional council oversight. The coastal shelf plan synchronizes the needs of coastal ecosystems and fishermen by restoring species diversity and protecting critical habitats while rebuilding commercial stocks. The approach can create robust, sustainable fisheries for all user groups, resolve equity issues among fishermen, and revitalize the economies of fishing communities of all sizes.

Although hypoxia is a threat to coastal ecosystems, policy makers have limited information about its economic impacts on fisheries. Studies using spatially and temporally aggregated data generally fail to detect statistically significant effects of hypoxia on fisheries. Limited recent work using disaggregated fishing data (microdata) has revealed modest effects of hypoxia on the catches of recreationally harvested species. These studies did not account for important spatial and temporal aspects of the system, however. For example, the effects of hypoxia on catch may not materialize instantaneously but involve a lagged process reflecting cumulative past exposure. This paper develops a differenced bioeconomic model to account for the lagged effects of hypoxia on the North Carolina fishery for brown shrimp Farfantepenaeus aztecus. The model integrates high-resolution oxygen monitoring data with fishery-dependent microdata from North Carolina's trip ticket program to investigate the detailed spatial and temporal relationships of hypoxia to commercial fishery harvests. The main finding is that hypoxia may have resulted in a 12.9% annual decrease in the brown shrimp harvest during the period 1999–2005. The paper also develops two alternative models—a nondifferenced model and a polynomial distributed lag model—whose results are consistent with those of the main model.

Body composition and fish health indices of bonefish Albula vulpes were investigated to elucidate the energy dynamics in poorly studied tropical tidal flat environments. In general, bonefish were composed of 72% water, 21% protein, 4% ash, and 3% lipids, which is consistent with the wet weight values of the majority of freshwater and marine fish studied to date. Significant inverse relationships between the water and lipid contents of whole-body, gonad, and liver tissues revealed that the percentage of water is a good indicator of the relative amount of stored energy in bonefish and may be used as a surrogate for lipid content in future studies. The liver was the main storage site for lipids, containing more than twice the fat in the whole body. While both abiotic (e.g., season and location) and biotic (e.g., sex and size) factors contributed to the predictive power of the general linear models generated for all constituent analyses, there were no significant differences in whole-body or liver lipid content between seasons, which may be explained by there being a consistent food supply year-round. There was, however, a significant relationship between lipid content and body size with respect to season. Lipid content decreased in the winter and increased in the summer with increasing body size, a trend that can be explained by the timing of the reproductive season in bonefish. Seasonal changes in the condition factor and gonadosomatic indices were also linked to the winter spawning season, with decreasing body condition and increasing gonad development in the winter. Observed site-specific differences in the lipid content and liver somatic indices of bonefish may be accounted for by local trophodynamics as well as subtle differences in life history strategies. The energy reserve and fish health index data collected in this study may provide a useful baseline for future comparative work and help elucidate fish energetics in dynamic tropical tidal flat systems.

The bycatch of sea turtles (order Testudines) in bottom-trawl fisheries is an important conservation issue currently being addressed by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service and its stakeholders. The agency is considering the implementation of new sea turtle conservation regulations in several mid-Atlantic trawl fisheries, including the expanded use of turtle excluder devices (TEDs). The characteristics of observed sea turtle bycatch are used to calculate four conservation metrics. The lowest-level metric is simple to calculate but not informative of population impacts because it does not adequately incorporate the magnitude and demographics of the affected population. The highest-level metric incorporates both magnitude and demographics and is therefore more difficult to calculate but also more informative. Five size categories of turtles were evaluated with respect to the protection afforded by various TED configurations, and the conservation value of 12 bycatch mitigation alternatives was estimated using each of the four conservation metrics. The most informative metric was adult-equivalent bycatch mortality. A TED with a large escape opening had the highest estimated conservation value for loggerheads Caretta caretta. Up to 66 more adult-equivalent loggerheads were estimated to be protected by the large opening than by the standard opening. A similar number could be protected by extending TED use north of 37°N. The number of adult-equivalent loggerheads estimated to be protected by standard and wide-bar spacing is nearly the same. The percentage of encountered turtles caught in trawls is not an adequate proxy for the number of adult-equivalent mortalities caused by the fishery. Evaluating sea turtle bycatch using adult-equivalent mortalities facilitates comparisons across disparate bycatch mitigation alternatives and provides a meaningful way to assess the efficacy of bycatch mitigation alternatives for the recovery of sea turtle populations.

Sand shoals provide both a potentially unique habitat resource for marine organisms and a source of sand for the replenishment of eroded beaches. Sand removal may negatively influence marine communities, so understanding how marine fauna utilize habitats at and around shoals would provide much-needed guidance in selecting sites for sand harvest. A 2-year study was conducted on the inner continental shelf of the Middle Atlantic Bight, U.S.A., to compare finfish and invertebrate assemblages at sand shoal and nearby flat-bottom habitats. Multiple sampling modalities were used to sample organisms across a range of sizes, living habits, and life history stages. There was a trend toward greater abundance, species richness, and species diversity in flat-bottom habitats than in shoal habitats, and all of these community measures were generally lower during winter than in spring, summer, or fall. Moreover, species groups, including pelagic finfish, pelagic invertebrates, benthic finfish, and benthic invertebrates, were all more abundant in the flat-bottom habitats. Particular species characterized each type of habitat and these associations varied with season. Sampling with a large commercial trawl indicated that shoal finfish assemblages were characterized by striped bass Morone saxatilis and little skate Leucoraja erinacea in the fall, by scup Stenostomus chrysops in the spring, and by American sand lance Ammodytes americanus, scup, and clearnose skate Raja eglanteria in the summer. Experimental trawl sampling, which targeted primarily smaller organisms, found that communities on shoals were characterized by gastropods in the winter, squid (class Cephalopoda), and right-handed hermit crabs (family Paguridae) in the spring, and right-handed hermit crabs and scup in the summer. Winter was the period of lowest finfish and invertebrate use of shoal habitat and thus would be the best time of year for dredging sand to minimize acute impacts.

We developed a telemetry and remote-sensing instrument platform for a small vessel (6.1-m inboard jetboat) to collect fish telemetry and environmental data in real time as well as to collect data during habitat surveys in the Columbia River estuary. The instrumentation consisted of two acoustic telemetry hydrophones, an acoustic telemetry receiver, a conductivity–temperature–depth probe, an acoustic Doppler current profiler, a differential Global Positioning System, and a side-scan sonar integrated with an onboard portable computer. The system can be used on other vessels, has the flexibility to adapt to a range of telemetry and small oceanographic instrument systems, and allows for deployment and data collection from all instruments simultaneously.

–Abundance estimates of wild and hatchery Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp. are important for evaluation of stock status and density-dependent interactions at sea. We assembled available salmon catch and spawning abundance data for both Asia and North America and reconstructed total abundances of pink salmon O. gorbuscha, chum salmon O. keta, and sockeye salmon O. nerka during 1952–2005. Abundance trends were evaluated with respect to species, regional stock groups, and climatic regimes. Wild adult pink salmon were the most numerous salmon species (average = 268 × 10⁶ fish/year, or 70% of the total abundance of the three species), followed by sockeye salmon (63 × 10⁶ fish/year, or 17%) and chum salmon (48 × 10⁶ fish/year, or 13%). After the 1976–1977 ocean regime shift, abundances of wild pink salmon and sockeye salmon increased by more than 65% on average, whereas abundance of wild chum salmon was lower in recent decades. Although wild salmon abundances in most regions of North America increased in the late 1970s, abundances in Asia typically did not increase until the 1990s. Annual releases of juvenile salmon from hatcheries increased rapidly during the 1970s and 1980s and reached approximately 4.5 × 10⁹ juveniles/year during the 1990s and early 2000s. During 1990–2005, annual production of hatchery-origin adult salmon averaged 78 × 10⁶ chum salmon, 54 × 10⁶ pink salmon, and 3.2 × 10⁶ sockeye salmon, or approximately 62, 13, and 4%, respectively, of the combined total wild and hatchery salmon abundance. The combined abundance of adult wild and hatchery salmon during 1990–2005 averaged 634 × 10⁶ salmon/year (498 × 10⁶ wild salmon/year), or approximately twice as many as during 1952–1975. The large and increasing abundances of hatchery salmon have important management implications in terms of density-dependent processes and conservation of wild salmon populations; management agencies should improve estimates of hatchery salmon abundance in harvests and on the spawning grounds.

Spatial and temporal variability in maturity at length and maturity at age was examined for female Atka mackerel Pleurogrammus monopterygius in the eastern and central Aleutian Islands of Alaska. Postovulatory follicles (POFs) were evaluated as a potential character to distinguish spent mature fish from immature fish. We estimated that POFs remain in the ovaries for approximately 1 month after spawning, therefore allowing us to include some collections of recently spent fish for maturity estimates. Maturity-at-length data varied significantly among geographic areas and years, whereas maturity-at-age data failed to indicate differences. These results are probably attributable to different growth rates between the areas. An age-based model was developed to account for differences in year-class strengths, and modeling results showed that length at maturity could vary by as much as 4 cm over time because of variable recruitment. Maturity in Atka mackerel seems to be determined more by age than by somatic body size.

Building on previous analyses suggesting that the composition of fishery landings reflects the effects of eutrophication on mobile fish and benthos, we examined landings composition in relation to nitrogen loading and the spatial extent of hypoxia in a cross-system comparison of 22 ecosystems. We hypothesized that explicit consideration of both N and hypoxia is important because nutrient enrichment has been shown to have contrasting direct and indirect effects on fisheries. Consistent with this premise, patterns in landings composition differed with respect to N load and the spatial extent of hypoxia. For example, the ratios of pelagic to benthic and demersal biomass in fishery landings (P/D) exhibited a decreasing trend across ecosystems with progressively higher N but were significantly and positively correlated with the spatial extent of hypoxia. The P/D ratios were particularly high in systems with extensive and persistent hypoxia and particularly low in several estuaries where purse seining is prohibited or not used. In analyses that considered all systems, benthic and demersal landings did not decrease at high N as predicted by previous conceptual models, and the negative association with the spatial extent of hypoxia was statistically significant only when the Black Sea was included in the analysis. Landings of pelagic planktivores did not vary with the spatial extent of hypoxia but were positively related to N for all systems combined and for semi-enclosed seas. The trophic and size composition of fishery landings were not related to N or hypoxia, perhaps because landings of large, high-trophic-level species are more influenced by fishery exploitation or practices that mask the effects of water quality. Our results suggest that the response of fisheries to eutrophication differs from prevailing paradigms, which do not clearly distinguish between nutrient and hypoxia effects on fishery landings and do not consider the important influence of fishing practices and regulations on patterns in landings data.

Atka mackerel Pleurogrammus monopterygius make up the single largest biomass of groundfish in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and are an important component of this marine ecosystem. Atka mackerel show a significant decrease in size from east to west. We compared fish from two study areas reflecting this size cline: Seguam Pass in the eastern Aleutians and Amchitka Island in the western Aleutians. At any given age, the Atka mackerel at the former location are larger than those at the latter (e.g., 5-year-old fish average 732 g and 39 cm fork length at Seguam Pass but only 575 g and 36 cm at Amchitka Island). Our objectives were to determine the mechanisms underlying the observed differences in growth, such as prey availability, prey quality, and thermal experience. We used a bioenergetics model to examine the effects of diet and temperature on growth. The model estimates of consumption fell within the range of those observed for Atka mackerel, suggesting that the model was an appropriate tool for exploring these effects. The results obtained with the model suggest that prey quality is the main factor in the observed size differences. At Seguam Pass Atka mackerel ate a more energetically rich diet consisting of euphausiids and fish, whereas at Amchitka Island copepods dominated the diet and there was little to no fish consumption. The model results also suggest that thermal experience contributed less to the observed differences in growth than did the composition of the diet. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the growth of Atka mackerel will improve predictions of biomass and yield within the framework of a dynamic ecosystem and a changing climate.

Levels of neutral genetic diversity largely reflect effective population size (N_e), which is influenced by physical and biological environmental variables. While large populations of marine fishes generally harbor higher diversities than freshwater species, historical demography or the effects of natural selection may significantly reduce N_e and differentially affect genomic diversities. Here, we surveyed levels of genetic diversity and examined genetic structure among populations of the Atka mackerel Pleurogrammus monopterygius across most of its geographic range by screening variation at nine nuclear microsatellite DNA markers (n = 745) and in a 468-base-pair segment of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region (n = 119). Samples from Japan to the western Gulf of Alaska were collected between 2004 and 2006 at six locations, including temporal replicates at two sites. Microsatellite allele frequency homogeneity across the North Pacific indicated an apparent lack of genetic population substructure. While levels of polymorphism at microsatellite loci were typical for marine fishes (haplotype diversity h = 0.34–0.96), mtDNA control region diversity was extremely low (nucleotide diversity = 0.00007; h = 0.033). Only three mtDNA haplotypes, two occurring as singletons, were detected among 119 individuals. The strong contrast between microsatellite and mtDNA diversities appears to be due to the smaller N_e for mtDNA, perhaps resulting from population bottlenecks during postglacial colonizations of the central North Pacific or the effects of natural selection on mtDNA.

The mating system and patterns of gender-specific egg cannibalism in Atka mackerel Pleurogrammus monopterygius were examined through genetic parentage analysis of embryos in egg clutches produced in captive and wild populations. Like other hexagrammid fishes, Atka mackerel exhibit polygynandry, which is characterized by serial matings by both genders within a breeding season. Most matings in captivity were pairings of females with nest-attendant males, although parentage analysis of clutches produced in a small tank with limited nesting substrate revealed that 31% contained contributions by non–nest-guarding males. In contrast, all egg clutches produced in a large exhibit tank were sired by guardian males. Multiple parentage, sometimes involving both genders, was detected in 35% of egg clutches collected in the field or retrieved from the guts of adult male and female cannibals. Half-sib and unrelated full-sib embryos were found in several putative clutches, indicating that the reproductive output from multiple males and females may be combined sequentially and fused into a single clutch. These results suggested that nest takeovers, combined with alloparental care of existing broods, represent common reproductive tactics in males. Egg cannibalism is a significant seasonal factor in the diets of male and female Atka mackerel. Analysis of loose eggs and partial egg clutches ingested by 4 female and 15 male cannibals showed that nearly all conspecific predation represented heterocannibalism. One instance of partial filial cannibalism was documented in a male that was one of multiple sires for the clutch.

The behavioral ecology of seasonal and ephemeral variations in color patterns of Atka mackerel Pleurogrammus monopterygius was investigated and is discussed relative to alternative mating tactics, reproductive condition, social status, and predation risk. Breeding males underwent a conspicuous seasonal color change during the mating and brooding period, resulting in one of two nuptial phenotypes. Type I males held and defended territories inside nesting colonies and had a uniform yellow coloration with a golden hue across the head and dorsum. Type II males were nonterritorial, hovered above the nesting colony, and attempted periodic forays into the nesting colony; their color was plain yellow with irregular dark blotches across the head and dorsum and a light patch on the nape. When displaced from their nests, type I males also showed dark blotches and a light patch on the nape, but these characteristics were less pronounced than those in type II males. The color of females and nonbreeding males was indistinguishable and exhibited little seasonal variation; however, females close to spawning showed an ephemeral darkening of the body with white spots and patches along the dorsum. Nonbreeding males and females undergoing diel migrations also showed the same pattern across the dorsum but without darkening. The overall mean ratio of males to females in the trawl-sampled population was 1.22:1.00, of which 44.9% were females, 40% were nonbreeding males, 9.8% were intermediate males (with characteristics intermediate between those of breeding and nonbreeding males), and 5.3% were breeding males. The proportion of breeding males was 12 times higher inside nesting colonies than outside the colonies. The mean fork length (FL) of intermediate and breeding males was larger (by ≤1 cm) than that of females or nonbreeding males. Understanding the behavioral ecology of Atka mackerel is important to the development of a comprehensive ecological index for monitoring and assessing the reproductive health of Atka mackerel stocks.

The summer flounder Paralichthys dentatus is one of the most sought-after recreational fish along the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States. This fishery is primarily a consumptive fishery. The stock has been successfully rebuilding but remains below statutory rebuilding goals. Managers accordingly have restrained the annual quota primarily by increasing size limits, with a resulting increase in discard mortality. The purpose of this study was to evaluate new approaches to bag and size limits that minimize discard mortality while increasing angler satisfaction within the constraints of promulgated catch quotas. Three alternative management scenarios (slot limit, reduced minimum size, and cumulative size scenarios) were tested on party boats from New Jersey and New York. Total catch (by number) was lowest for control fishing trips (2006 state regulation) and higher for all three experimental scenarios because the experimental scenarios resulted in a greater number of kept fish. Discard-to-catch ratio (by fish weight and number) was highest for control trips, and landings (by weight and number) were lowest for the control scenario. Recreational fishermen operating under the reduced minimum size and cumulative size scenarios kept the most fish; these scenarios had the lowest discard-to-catch ratios. The slot limit scenario was intermediate in the discard-to-catch ratio and also in the number of kept fish. All three alternative management scenarios resulted in landing more fish under a biomass-neutral fishery to retain catch within allocation limits. Relative to 2006 legal conditions, the alternative scenarios produced proportional increases in landings by a factor of 1.75 to 2.09, while reducing discard mortality by 41–63% and maintaining the same total fishing mortality (landings plus discards) by weight.

The marine survival of juvenile coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch from the time they enter the Strait of Georgia in mid-May to the time of our trawl survey in mid-September declined from an average of about 15% in 1998 to approximately 1% in 2007. Early marine survival rates for juvenile coho salmon have been consistently low (<5%) since 2002, and the rate of decline in early marine survival was greater for hatchery fish than for wild fish. This suggests that hatchery coho salmon are perhaps less able to survive than wild fish in the current marine ecosystem. The steady decline in total marine survival for coho salmon over the past four decades coincided with a warming of the Strait of Georgia, where both sea surface and sea bottom temperatures have increased by approximately 1°C since 1970. Another factor that appears to have contributed to the decline in early marine survival since the late 1990s is an increase in the number of days with an average sustained wind strength greater than 25 km/h. The linkage between wind strength and marine survival requires further study, but wind strength is known to affect the timing and level of primary productivity. The processes that caused the declining marine survival remain to be identified and may include factors associated with disease originating in both freshwater and salt water, metabolic stress, competition, and predation. The data suggest that coho salmon brood year strength is now mostly determined during the first 4 months spent in the Strait of Georgia. If the current low levels of marine survival continue, management initiatives to protect wild coho salmon will be urgently required, and it will be timely to critically evaluate the hatchery programs and policies.

Declines in shark populations have sparked researchers and fishery managers to investigate more prudent approaches to the conservation of these fish. As managers strive to improve data collection for stock assessment, fisheries-independent surveys have expanded to include data-deficient areas such as coastal regions. To that end, a catch series from a nearshore survey off Alabama was combined with data from a concurrent offshore survey with identical methodology to examine the depth use of sharks across the continental shelf (2–366 m). The combined data set contained 22 species of sharks collected from 1995 to 2008: 21 species in the offshore data set (1995–2008) and 12 species in the nearshore data set (2006–2008). Depth was a significant factor determining species' distributions, primarily for Atlantic sharpnose Rhizoprionodon terraenovae, blacknose Carcharhinus acronotus, and blacktip C. limbatus sharks. Blacknose sharks had the highest catch per unit effort (CPUE) in the middepth stratum (10–30 m), blacktip sharks had consistently higher CPUE in the shallow depth stratum (<10 m), and Atlantic sharpnose sharks showed high abundance throughout both the shallow and middepth strata. Length frequency and sex ratio analyses suggest that Atlantic sharpnose and blacknose sharks are using waters greater than 30 m deep for parturition, whereas adult blacktip sharks are probably using shallow waters for parturition. Our abundance patterns illustrate a continuum of depth use across the inner continental shelf. Surveys that do not encompass the entirety of this ecosystem fail to accurately characterize the distributions of these important predators.

In U.S. federal fishery management, acceptable biological catch (ABC) is set below (or equal to) the overfishing limit to account for scientific uncertainty, and annual catch targets (ACTs) are set below (or equal to) the ABC to account for implementation uncertainty (i.e., imperfect management control). In previous papers, we discussed probabilistic approaches to setting target and limit reference points for fishery management. Here, we explain how those approaches can be adapted to provide ABCs and ACTs over multiple years and otherwise made consist with recent revisions to the National Standards Guidelines, a part of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations that describes implementation of the Magnuson–Stevens Reauthorization Act. Although described in terms of U.S. fishery management, our methods are sufficiently general for use by researchers in U.S. state agencies or elsewhere in the world. We demonstrate them via an example application to vermilion snapper Rhomboplites aurorubens in U.S. Atlantic waters.