Farming and tourism are the primary livelihood options for mountain people in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region. Tourism in Sikkim, a small Indian state in the eastern Himalaya, has become popular only since 1990; the main focus is on ecotourism. Only a small segment of the population is engaged in this sector, however. More than 80% of the population depends on agriculture. The developmental measures of the "green revolution" implemented in other Indian states were not successful in the Himalayan region because adequate fertilizers were never available on time, irrigation could not be developed, and soils are very fragile. Population growth and consequent fragmentation of farmland in Sikkim have caused a reduction in per capita holdings. This has forced farmers to cultivate cash crops such as potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), and mandarin oranges (Citrus reticulata). The latter two have caused rapid nutrient depletion of the soil. Production of another cash crop, large cardamom (Amomum subulatum), a plant native to the Sikkim Himalaya, has been a boon to the mountain people of the area. Large cardamom is a perennial cash crop grown beneath the forest cover on marginal lands. Its cultivation is an example of how a local mountain niche can be exploited sustainably.

Many decisions taken during the process of planning conservation interventions in tropical forests are influenced by scientists and politicians. Although local people may be strongly affected by these decisions, there are problems related to external professionals' understanding of how such decisions might affect the livelihoods of local residents. And despite the worldwide move towards more ‘participatory’ methods, there are still problems in finding ways to consult local people to find out which areas they themselves would like to conserve.

Can a community achieve economic development while protecting its forests? This question challenges communities for which forests represent a primary resource. Community forestry offers one approach, and two cases from mountainous zones in Mesoamerica illustrate its promise and difficulties. While the communities' exploitation of forest resources is limited, they face problems that reflect issues with wide relevance to the developing world and sustainable forestry.

Roughly paralleling the Atlantic coast for 1800 km, Appalachia's peaks and ridges, rising to just over 2000 m, form the axis of eastern North America. Between 1880 and 1920, virtually the entire mountain chain was clear-cut. Severe erosion accompanied the logging. Today's second-growth forests (Figure 1) have matured under the eye of conservation-minded professionals and a sympathetic public determined to prevent a repeat of the first deforestation. Other current environmental issues include forest fragmentation, lack of land use planning, acid mine drainage, acid deposition, and exotic species—all of which degrade the quality of surface waters. Finding solutions for these problems is a constant challenge. In West Virginia, a strategic planning process involving the state's complete political spectrum provided the foundation for launching two programs, one to assess the ecological conditions of the state's watersheds and the other to support the birth and growth of inclusive, consensus-based grassroots watershed groups. A case study illustrates some lessons learned from the second program, focusing specifically on erosion problems.

The Bridger Wilderness of Bridger-Teton National Forest takes up most of the west slope of the Wind River Mountains in western Wyoming. Within the wilderness boundary lies the tallest of Wyoming's mountains, Gannett Peak; the Green River, a major tributary of the Colorado, begins here. But Bridger Wilderness is more than big mountains and important headwaters; it is a battleground for old adversaries who have struggled to direct the use of America's wildlands, and who compete to influence the federal agency charged with administering this piece of public land (Figure 1). The livestock industry, environmentalists, and the US Forest Service are the players in this battle. And though this particular battleground is shaped by uniquely American institutions and history, the contest itself is one that can be found around the globe.

The Western Carpathian forests are of extraordinary importance, not only as production forests but also in terms of general and local public interest. Apart from being the source of economically vital products for local people, they play a very important role for neighboring countries in protecting soil and water resources in which these countries also have an interest. The total forest acreage in Slovakia has increased by more than 10% during the last 40 years, and total growing stock represents 190 m³ per hectare. But the condition of forests in the last decades has markedly deteriorated (Figures 1 and 2). Slovakia is currently exploring ways and means of restoring its forests to a healthy condition.

The capacity of forests to provide sustainable employment opportunities is becoming the focus of greater interest worldwide. In mountain areas, forest resources are a considerable source of livelihood and of multiple economic activities based on a variety of goods and services. A case study from Savoy, France, is presented and discussed here. The results of the study suggest that forest-related activities in mountain regions enhance environmental and socioeconomic benefits, including high-quality goods and services, as well as sustainable employment opportunities.

The use of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) in tropical forest management is currently receiving greater attention. Use of NTFPs starts with extraction from natural forests but may gradually be intensified to cultivation of domesticated trees. In order to enhance understanding of the evolutionary processes in NTFP production, this article analyzes the different management systems of timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) production in Nepalese forests. Products of this medicinal plant are regularly traded with India. Four different management regimes on open-access state lands, two different types of community-controlled lands, and private lands are described, each being characterized by a specific set of access regimes, organizational rules for collecting and managing timur, and management practices. A gradual increase in management intensity takes place from public lands to private lands as a result of various socio economic and politico-legislative factors. In contrast to earlier Nepalese studies, increased market price rather than increased scarcity was found to be the most important factor inducing intensification. It is concluded that the effects of supply and demand factors on management intensity of NTFPs cannot be generalized; these effects depend on both the management and marketing characteristics of specific NTFPs.

Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don is a popular, potentially income-generating wild edible in the Indian Himalaya. The species prefers Pinus roxburghii Sarg., Quercus leucotrichophora A. Cam., and mixed Quercus forests, contributing 15–26% of total tree density in the forests. It performs best in Pinus roxburghii forests, where its density correlates with Pinus tree biomass. The regeneration of Myrica is poor in all the habitats. However, recruitment of species increases consistently from abundant Myrica to no-Myrica stands. The fruit yield increases with tree size category and differs between habitats. The potential yield at different sites is 2.0–4.2 tonnes/ha, of which 2.8–7.2% is harvested for income generation. The income generated from Myrica fruit is significant, considering the regional annual per capita income. The possible impact of fruit harvesting and other disturbance factors on the regeneration of the species is discussed. There are significant options for enhancing the income-generating potential through value addition.

Making information and decision-making processes accessible to disadvantaged and nonliterate people is a challenge for community forestry in Nepal. In studies jointly conducted by the Nepal–UK Community Forestry Project (NUKCFP) and His Majesty's Government (HMG) of Nepal Department of Forest, aerial photographs and participatory photomapping (tracing maps over aerial photographs) were evaluated with a view to supporting participatory processes of community forestry in Parbat District of the Middle Hill Region. Results indicate that, regardless of educational status, most people accurately interpreted forest condition and profiles of community use from photographs. Photographs were appreciated because they presented authentic information, allowed consistency of interpretation between groups, and made it possible to calibrate perceptions of resources. District Forest Officers and Community Forestry Officers valued aerial photographs as robust instruments that naturally directed discussions toward community and resource issues. Results of a pilot study of the use of aerial images for surveys indicated that orthorectified aerial images may substantially reduce time spent by District Forest Office (DFO) staff in chain-and-compass surveys of community forests. Surveys based on aerial images encourage the participation of users, and boundaries drawn over survey photomaps are represented in the context of important reference information contained in the photographic image. The development of a service for low-cost printing of high-resolution and geographically correct photomaps is described.

An ethnobotanical survey was carried out among a campesino community in a Costa Rican montane cloud forest. Campesino families were interviewed about how they used indigenous and introduced vascular plants along an altitudinal gradient (2000–3000 m). From a total of 590 species known in the area, 23.8% of 189 useful plant species were used for medicinal purposes, 39.7% for food, and 24.3% for construction (timber) or as combustibles (fuelwood, charcoal). Less important uses included dye, ornament (ecotourism), fodder, gum, oil, and poison. A total of 61.9 % of the plants were used for one purpose only. The introduced and exotic woody species Cupressus lusitanica and Eucalyptus globulus showed the highest diversity in types of use (7), together with the native Alnus acuminata. Trunks (53%) and fruits (47%) were the main plant organs used, followed by leaves (33%) and branches (30%). Over 27.5% of all plants were used on a daily basis, while 34.9% were used occasionally. About 11.6% of the species were rarely used. At present, use of indigenous species is becoming less common; the trend is to favor introduced and economically important species. In the short or medium term, local knowledge of medicinal plants will probably disappear in this rural community that is undergoing modernization, with a focus on new undertakings such as fruticultural export, rainbow trout hatcheries, and ecotourism.

Large-scale vegetation mapping (1:10,000) was applied to obtain estimates of the hydrological properties and dynamics in catchment areas that supply water to the capital city of Austria (Vienna). Vegetation types as defined by standard relevé technique, such as alpine grassland, snow bed vegetation, and krummholz were related to habitat conditions. A GIS served as the focal exploration tool. The vegetation units show specific evapotranspiration rates, which were derived from literature on experimental research covering similar vegetation types in the Alps. Additionally, physical soil properties from field data were used to derive the specific soil water balance in relation to the mapped vegetation types. Finally, the hydrological balances for each landscape unit, as well as for the total catchment area, were presented by combining the estimates for evapotranspiration and soil water properties. The consequences of environmental change (forestry, pasturing, and climate warming) are a focus of attention for water management. Predicting general changes in vegetation patterns reveals contrasting scenarios about the consequences to be expected for the water supply of Vienna.

Protection is of vital importance to human populations and activities in the European Alps. In the short to medium term, failure to manage alpine protective forests leads to intolerable risks for people who live and make a living in alpine valleys. The most important features of a protective forest are its stability properties, that is, its ability to carry out its protective function reliably and continuously and, if this is achieved, its ability to maintain its structure and vitality in the face of internal and external influences. Since maintaining and improving stability properties is costly and labor intensive, the objective of interventions should be an acceptable—rather than an ideal—degree of stability in order to ensure the functions required of the protective forest over a 20–50 year period. Such interventions are collectively referred to as minimal tending. A case study of the Ban de Ville forest in Courmayeur (Aosta Valley, Italy) illustrates aspects of silvicultural planning. Only one third of the Ban de Ville forest was found to be acceptably stable. The main causes of instability were unsuitable species composition, simplified vertical structure and cover, presence of Ips typographus and Heterobasidion annosum, and presence of high densities of wild ungulates. Measures to improve stability properties aimed to increase the presence of larch among a homogenous stand of Norway spruce and gradually establish a multilayered, small group structure.