Intensification of crop production in the mountains has long been perceived as unsustainable. However, since the late 1980s it has become increasingly evident that decline and collapse are not always inevitable. The present article provides examples from the highlands of northern Thailand to show that local food security can be improved while impacts on the resource base and the environment are minimized. This was achieved with the help of cropping systems developed and adapted by farmers themselves (Figure 1). Studying farmers' management techniques will allow this success to be repeated elsewhere, but only if it is based on the idea of dynamic variation in cropping system management that occurs within and between mountain agroecosystems, defined as agrodiversity.

The widespread adoption of soil conservation technologies by farmers (notably contour hedgerows) observed in Guba, Cebu City, Philippines, is not often observed elsewhere in the country. Adoption of these technologies was because of the interaction of such phenomena as site-specific factors, appropriate extension systems, and technologies. However, lack of hedgerow maintenance, decreasing hedgerow quality, and disappearance of hedgerows raised concerns about sustainability. The dynamic nature of upland farming systems suggests the need for a location-specific farming system development framework, which provides farmers with ongoing extension for continual promotion of appropriate conservation practices.

Many types of problems caused by land degradation can be documented worldwide. The main natural resources affected are soils, water, natural vegetation, and wildlife; but cultivated plants are exposed to even greater damage, which poses a threat to food security as well. Soil degradation is one of the most crucial processes of land degradation and environmental change. Over a quarter of the world's agricultural land has been damaged by long-term soil degradation, corresponding to one-tenth of the earth's land surface. As is well known, mountain areas are especially vulnerable to land degradation (Figure 1). Because mountains are also water towers, providing water not only for highland areas but also for the surrounding lowlands, land degradation in the mountains has serious impacts on the global supply of freshwater and on growing water-related conflicts.

At the same time, there have been many achievements in sustainable land use and in avoiding and combating degradation (Figure 2). Every day land users and soil and water conservation (SWC) specialists evaluate experience and generate know-how related to land management, improvement of soil fertility, and protection of soil resources. Most of this valuable knowledge, however, is not well documented or easily accessible, and comparison of different types of experience is difficult. The World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) has the mission of providing tools that allow SWC specialists to share their valuable knowledge in soil and water management, assist them in their search for appropriate SWC technologies and approaches, and support them in making decisions in the field and at the planning level.

A live fences project in Ecuador sought to associate the idea of environmental recovery, characterized by an agro-ecological focus, with a perspective on social and economic development. Cultivation of the Opuntia cactus and the cochineal insect (Dactylopus coccus), environmentally and culturally adapted to the region, permitted the recovery of several degraded areas and generated income for rural dwellers, especially during periods of drought. Among the most important project impacts were: recovery of traditional knowledge, cultural values, ancestral skills, and inveterate attachment to communal properties; determination of the ecotones of the cactus for production of cochineal, fruits, forage, and live barriers; recovery of areas eroded by overexploitation and inadequate management; increased sensitivity among political leaders regarding the problems of desertification and the need to support a second phase of the project; decision-making by community-based organizations; and commitment of the community to the activities of the project, based on agreements between authorities, academia, and the community. In 1999, the project was honored with the “Saving the Drylands” Award given by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) at Recife, Brazil, during the Third Conference of Parties (COP 3) of the Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD).

Approximately 70% of Serbia consists of rolling, hilly and mountainous regions that are prone to erosion. Other natural factors, such as an unstable geological basis, intense rainfall, and poor vegetation cover also contribute to this predisposition to erosion. But the principal factor in accelerated erosion is human activity. The period up to the mid-1950s was characterized by great agrarian pressures and the resulting accelerated erosion. This was followed by rural depopulation and changes in the structure of agricultural production. As younger household members migrated, arable fields were left uncultivated, were invaded by weeds, and were then converted into pastures. Out-migration thus led to reduced pressure on the land, which contributed to diminishing erosion.

But this cannot be called development. The revival of degraded regions should be based on people remaining in the area and being able to have decent livelihoods. Sustainable land use can make this possible, as illustrated by the example of the cooperative venture involving the Porecje Company and local farmers in the Porecje region. This venture involves cooperation between farmers and the company, reducing erosion by establishing terraces on steep slopes, improving soil characteristics, and promoting profitable fruit production. Land resources and environmental values are thus preserved without jeopardizing the profitability necessary to keep people in the region.

The Himalaya harbor a wealth of springs and shallow wells used for drinking water and other household purposes. However, discharge from these sources has declined in recent decades—some springs have even dried up—making water a crucial development issue in the region. This article describes a field experiment to increase spring discharge with simple ecotechnology (spring sanctuary development) in the recharge zone of a nearly extinct spring in a Himalayan microwatershed in Uttaranchal. In the years after the experiment, water discharge increased from 1055 to 2153 L/d (1995–2000). Though much of this increase was probably because of above-average rainfall in the dry season of 2000, the results are very encouraging. In addition, the discharge of all springs in the watershed was pooled and more rational use of water was promoted.

The spatial distribution of 961 debris flows in the Upper Aragón and Gállego valleys (Central Spanish Pyrenees) was analyzed. Most were located in the Flysch Sector (with a colluvium mantle derived from strongly tectonically modified materials), between 1000 and 1400 m above sea level, on 25–35° gradients with sunny exposure. These gradients were either hillslopes covered by frequently burned scrubland, abandoned fields, or reforested land, confirming the influence of land use and disturbed landscapes on the occurrence of debris flows.

Steep terrain and high frequency of tropical rainstorms make landslide occurrence on natural terrain a common phenomenon in Hong Kong. The present article reports on the use of a geographical information system (GIS) database, compiled primarily from existing digital maps and aerial photographs, to describe the physical characteristics of landslides and the statistical correlations between landslide frequency and terrain variables on Lantau Island in Hong Kong. This database is then used to obtain a logistic multiple regression model to predict landslide susceptibility. Slope gradient, lithology, elevation, slope aspect, and land use cover are indicated as statistically significant in predicting landslide susceptibility, whereas slope morphology and proximity to drainage line are not important and are thus excluded from the model. This model is then imported back into the GIS to produce a map of predicted landslide susceptibility. This study demonstrates that landslide susceptibility can be effectively modeled by using GIS technology and logistic multiple regression analysis.

A great deal has been written about the relationship between landsliding and land use change, especially deforestation, in the Himalaya. But few detailed quantitative studies have examined this relationship. The present article reports the results of a 3-year study of landsliding in 4 subcatchments of the Likhu Khola drainage basin in the Middle Hills, Nepal. During the years of study (1991–1993), 381 landslides were noted, the vast majority of which were small failures on the risers of irrigated terraces (khetland). Although significant in terms of labor input, these failures were insignificant with respect to land degradation and overall denudation. Most significant were larger failures on abandoned terraces and degraded forest. It was estimated that the average annual soil losses from the main land uses were 0.48 ton/ha for irrigated terraces, 3.65 ton/ha for rainfed terraces, 1.86 ton/ha for grassland, 0.80 ton/ha for forested land, and 23.95 ton/ha for forest scrub and abandoned land. The combined average erosion rate was 5.55 ton/ha. Thus, deforestation does not necessarily lead to large soil losses from landsliding; much depends on how the land is managed after deforestation.

Land use/cover changes during the period 1963–1993 and their ecological and socioeconomic implications in Pranmati Watershed in the Indian Himalaya were analyzed on the basis of information extracted from archival records, satellite data, participatory discussions, and field measurement. Agricultural land use was practiced on 14.2% of the watershed area in 1963 compared with 18.5% in 1993. More than 50% of the agricultural expansion occurred in community forests between 1850 and 2400 m and on 20–30° slopes. The increase in area under cash crops, potato, and amaranth accompanied an 86% increase in the mean monetary value of crop produce but at the cost of abandoning the traditional crops Fagopyrum esculentum, F. tataricum, Panicum miliaceum, and Setaria italica. Agricultural land use changes were such that mean manure input at the watershed scale increased by 50%, and fodder output from crops decreased by 40%, implying the increasing pressure on forests. Local forest management institutions have not been adequately empowered to respond to the growing economic aspirations of people and the increasing population pressure. Research and policy support for improvement in traditional soil fertility management practices and forest resource-based economic development opportunities for local people is needed to reduce the threat from agriculture to forest ecosystems.

This study analyzed the spatial and temporal changes in land use between 1978 and 1992 in a typical watershed covering 543 km² in the Middle Hills of Nepal and used GIS to compare land use changes between village development committees (VDCs) with and without formally handed-over community forests during this period. The forest handover procedure followed the specifications of the national community forestry policy of Nepal. In the watershed, the total area of forested land (defined as high forest plus shrubland) declined by about 8% during the period. However, high forest increased over the study period, whereas shrubland cover declined. Between VDCs with community forests and those without, there were large differences in the rate of total forested area loss, with community forest VDCs losing less total forested area over the 14-year period. Moreover, in the group of VDCs with community forests, high forest area increased by 77%, in comparison with 13% for VDCs without community forests. Higher shrub loss in community forest VDCs was attributable to conversion into high forest via plantation establishment and natural succession. The results of this study indicate the positive impacts of Nepal's community forestry activities on the extent of forest cover.

This article investigates the role of capital formation in contributing to the sustainability of community forestry in Nepal, using a case study approach based on 23 forest user groups (FUGs). FUGs were classified in 3 categories on the basis of cluster analysis: (1) successful, (2) moderately successful, and (3) unsuccessful clusters. The results show that the elements of capital accumulation in a successful FUG were manageable mature forest, high prices for forest products, a system of charging for all forest products, and sales of surplus forest products outside the FUG. The results also suggest that the benefits of funds, community development, and forest improvement changed people's vision and behavior, as well as their attitude toward and understanding of community forestry. This change in attitude has increased interest in and awareness of community forestry and has stimulated thinking about the sustainability of community forestry. Local initiative of this sort makes community forests more secure, protected, and wisely managed for sustainable development.

Bruno Messerli was one of the key actors responsible for the inclusion of Chapter 13 (sustainable mountain development) in Agenda 21 and is still a leading proponent of mountain issues and concerns at the international level. He was invited by FAO, the UN Task Manager for IYM2002, to submit the speech he delivered at the IYM launch as part of this contribution to MountainPlatform. Ed.