Mountains have traditionally been havens for people seeking peace and spiritual solace. Nowhere has this been truer than in the Himalaya, the “Abode of the Gods,” from time immemorial. It is ironic, then, that in the Himalaya (or, to be more exact, in the Karakoram), a bitter, deadly, heroic, and absurd conflict is being fought. For 18 long years, the armed forces of India and Pakistan have fought on the Saltoro Ridge, south of the Siachen Glacier—the highest battlefield in the world. The creation of a Peace Park may contribute to resolving this half-century-old international conflict and preserving a unique high mountain environment currently being subjected to irreparable devastation.

In July 2002, MRD International Editorial Advisory Board Member Yuri P. Badenkov interviewed Vladimir Sabin, a member of the Telengit ethnic group who has held various public positions in the Kosh-Agach District of the Altai Republic and also served as the Republic's Minister of Ecology. Dr Badenkov first provides some background on current conditions in the Altai Mountains before posing direct questions to Vladimir Sabin. Ed.

All human beings must satisfy their basic needs. When they cannot do so, they compete with their fellow beings, get involved in conflicts, and sometimes exert violence. In many parts of the Himalayas, the potential for conflicts linked to the use of natural resources to satisfy basic needs is high because traditional livelihoods depend very much on agricultural land, pastures, and forests. A negative balance of demand and supply drives people to obtain resources forcefully wherever possible, which frequently leads to confrontation. Such conflicts can be mitigated by providing people with other sources of income and reducing their dependence on the limited local resource base. The people of Pangi Valley in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India, have experienced these processes and have now reached a stage where conflicts over natural resources are no longer a major concern. The availability of alternative economic opportunities has enabled people to free themselves from the constraints of traditional livelihoods based only on local natural resources.

The Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR) is one of the latest additions to the protected areas network in the Indian Himalayan Region. Located in the picturesque state of Sikkim in the eastern Indian Himalayan Region with snow-clad mountain peaks, numerous glaciers, a snow- and glacier-fed stream network and high-altitude lakes, this biosphere reserve (BR) is named after the world's third highest mountain peak, Mt Khangchendzonga (8598 m), 1 of the 14 peaks in the world above 8000 m. The KBR covers an area of 2619.92 km², 36.92% of the land area of Sikkim (Figure 1). BRs exemplify participatory sustainable resource use and ecosystem conservation. It is therefore important to consider the human dimensions of a BR from the outset and to survey stakeholders' attitudes about conservation in order to take into account the inherent traditional dependence of people on forest-based resources. Potential future conflicts of interest need to be addressed through well–thought out strategies and integration of traditional conflict prevention mechanisms. Experience gained in the KBR may be useful in light of the widely reported conflicts in other BRs and protected areas around the world. Careful and informed planning may help reduce the likelihood of conflicts arising in newly established BRs.

In recent decades, the Mount Kenya highland–lowland system, which includes the Ewaso Ngiro North Basin, has experienced complex ecological and socioeconomic dynamics. These are reflected in changing land use systems and practices as well as in a rapidly growing human population, especially in the footzones and adjacent lowlands. These changes have exerted unremitting pressure on water resources, especially because the demand for water by different user groups has continued to grow, against the backdrop of expensive alternative sources (rainwater and groundwater harvesting) and increasingly dwindling river water resources. As each of the user groups moves to make substantial claims to available river water, competition for the resource becomes even sharper, thus setting the stage for conflicts related to scarcity that intensify during the dry season, at times resulting in fatal physical conflicts among different user groups in the basin, especially between upstream and downstream users. Different approaches have been used to address these scarcity-related conflicts. The present article discusses Water Users' Associations as one of the most effective initiatives launched to address the problem of water use conflicts in the basin in the recent past.

Although Ecuador is a very small country in terms of area, its regions are heterogeneous. The province of Tungurahua, located in the highlands, is primarily an agricultural area with a hydrological deficit, even though the Ambato River, the major source of water, traverses 40% of its territory. In 1972, the Ecuadorian government nationalized all waterways and transferred the responsibility for their management to a state organization, the Ecuadorian Institute for Hydrological Resources (INHERI), whose main function had been the construction of new irrigation systems at a very high cost, with limited success and impact. INHERI also played a role in resource planning and assignment of water concessions for all traditional irrigation systems, which account for 80% of the area under irrigation in Ecuador. These systems frequently consist of very old irrigation channels built in the past centuries. In 1994, this organization was eliminated and replaced by the National Council for Hydrological Resources. In the province of Tungurahua, the regional Corporation for the Development of the Center Highlands was established to regulate and strengthen hydrological resources in the watersheds located in 3 provinces: Tungurahua, Cotopaxi, and Pastaza. Presently, however, this institution is too weak to carry out all the responsibilities entrusted to it.

More than a decade after the breakdown of a very severe communist regime, Albania is still facing the challenges of a difficult transition to democracy. The lack of a democratic tradition and a rather inequitable redistribution of resources have enabled a minority—often politicians—to thrive, whereas the majority of Albanians are struggling to survive. This is particularly the case in the remote northern mountain areas, where people are dependent mainly on agricultural and other types of land. Poor infrastructure and very weak police and judicial systems have made the region vulnerable to the revival of a centuries-old tradition: the blood feud. This severely hampers development, particularly tourism, and is undermining the country's social fabric.

This article compares the current state of maize diversity in 6 highland indigenous Maya Guatemalan villages with studies conducted earlier in this century. Although findings are preliminary, it appears that a significant number of maize varieties are no longer grown, as determined from comparisons with data collected earlier in this century. The authors believe that this decline is related to the recently concluded (1996) Guatemalan civil war and the associated poor socioeconomic conditions in which most rural Guatemalans exist. We present the case for the direct link between the maintenance of crop diversity and the political and economic atmosphere or security in peasant farming landscapes.

National parks and biological reserves play an important role in counteracting the effects of tropical deforestation in mountainous environments, a leading cause of biodiversity loss worldwide. Unfortunately, information is sparse on the nature, dynamics, and spatial dimension of land use and land cover change processes that contribute to park vulnerability. This article assesses the current state of landscape fragmentation and structure on the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica, using Landsat Multispectral Scanner and Thematic Mapper satellite scenes between 1979 and 1997. The Osa Peninsula hosts the Corcovado National Park, which contains the only protected region of Tropical Wet forest on the Pacific slopes of Mesoamerica, including a significant number of species that are endemic, threatened, or new to science. The level of isolation of the Corcovado National Park is based on the degree of ecosystem degradation produced by frontal deforestation processes. Our results indicate that the proportion of the Osa Peninsula covered by forest declined from 97% in 1979 to 91% in 1987 and to 89% by 1997. Total forest area declined from 977 km² in 1979 to 896 km² by 1997. These results pose significant questions regarding the effectiveness of current conservation efforts in this mountain biodiversity-rich area of Mesoamerica.

Alpine vegetation and timberline development were investigated on 4 high mountains in North China: Mt. Taibai (34°N, 108°E; 3767 m), Mt. Guandi (38°N, 111.5°E; 2831 m), Mt. Wutai (39°N, 113.6°E; 3058 m), and Mt. Xiaowutai (40°N, 115°E; 2882 m). The relationships between distribution of tree species and climatic factors on the uppermost parts of these mountains were established. As a result of the continental climate, their timberlines are composed of larch species, such as Larix chinensis on Mt. Taibai and Larix principis-rupprechtii on the other mountains. Two climatic indices, a warmth index (WI) and a humidity index (HI), were calculated for a differentiation of tree species near the timberline. A WI of 15°C mo has been commonly regarded as the limit for the timberline in East Asia. In addition, we suggest that the Larix timberline is formed when the HI is lower than 210. The understorey species of the forest patches inside the timberline and the L chinensis forest are similar on Mt. Taibai. These species are also distributed mostly in subalpine scrubs and meadows rather than in the Abies fargesii forest. This implies greater resistance to cold and drought in L chinensis than in A fargesii. Timberline movements were roughly reconstructed through analysis of sediments from the alpine zone of Mt. Taibai. A drier climate during 1830–1450 ¹⁴C years BP resulted in a lower Abies timberline and was favorable for distribution of Larix, reflected by pollen diagrams and palaeolimnological evidence, such as grain size and total organic carbon. Percentages of Abies/Picea pollen recurred from 1450 to 680 ¹⁴C years BP, implying an upward movement of Abies/Picea. Abies/Picea then moved downward, and the timberline was possibly replaced by Larix. In recent centuries, Picea/Abies has tended to move upward again.

Cattle grazing, although widely practiced in Himalayan conifer forests, is perceived to be harmful to the environment. The present article summarizes experiences in Bhutan where grazing in the forest remains the single, most important source of cattle fodder. The ongoing debate about the effect of cattle grazing is often based on speculation and driven by conflicting interests. With a few exceptions, descriptive observations consider grazing as harmful to the forest and the environment. Quantitative observations, however, do not support these assertions. Removal of herbaceous biomass by grazing enhances regeneration of conifer species and reduces damage done by small rodents. Grazing, however, diminishes the number and the density of broadleaved species. Through livestock grazing, plant nutrients are transferred from the forest to the agricultural systems. This may result in a gradual decline in the fertility of forest soils. The nutrients, especially P, are of utmost importance to agricultural production on marginal mountain soils. Silvopastoral systems combining dairy and timber production with coniferous species offer promising opportunities for many temperate regions of Bhutan. When assessing the opportunities and the problems of forest grazing, it will be important to consider sociocultural aspects and to include the opinions of farmers and herders in the debate.

Milk production is an important source of secure and regular income, especially in mountain areas. However, slope farmers in the Andes commonly face difficulties in shifting to milk production, given the limited access to land and water for fodder production. The implementation of sprinkler irrigation to expand the cultivation of permanent fodder crops, reduce soil erosion, and enhance soil productivity would represent a promising step forward. This study stresses the feasibility for small-scale farmers of shifting to sprinkler irrigation. It draws on farm household data and analysis of 10 family-based sprinkler irrigation projects in northern Peru. A farm-optimization model and a farm investment model were applied to assess expected changes in production and profitability and the development of farmers' savings and liquidity over a 10-year period. Independent of the water efficiency gain, results show that smallholders face a strong cash flow (liquidity) problem when shifting to sprinkler irrigation. To make this investment feasible for farmers, longer repayment periods (of several years) should be implemented and interest rates kept low. Close collaboration between nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and regional milk buyers would best guarantee credit because farmers' repayments could simply be deducted from regular milk bills. Given their own interest in increasing local milk supply, these milk buyers are also good NGO partners in implementation of effective extension to improve fodder and herd management, in order to maximize the payoff of the sprinkler investment.

The Bayanbulak region, deep in the East Tienshan Mountains, is the southernmost and highest breeding area for swans anywhere in the world. As one of the few biodiversity hotspots in central Asia, it was listed in 1986 as a Chinese national swan nature reserve. The region is also the largest grazing area in Xinjiang as well as a tourist attraction. But in the last 25 years, the population of wild swans has decreased from about 20,000 to 2000, and approximately half of the pastureland now suffers from overgrazing and degradation. Moreover, the local government has been considering building a reservoir in the region. If this is done, the ecology of this region would be greatly altered, and almost all wild-swan habitats would disappear. The present study identifies alpine grassland types and concludes that it is urgent to protect the breeding areas of wild swans and control grassland degradation, and that any plan for reservoir construction should be rejected.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is headquartered in Nairobi and has regional offices on every continent. UNEP's mission is “to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.”

This article is reprinted from Teen Planet No 5, September/October 2002, the UNEP outreach magazine for young people and those interested in youth development. It illustrates UNEP's concern with global climate change and its impact on mountains, and the urgent need to monitor them. Ed.